Frequency-domain interferometry for the determination of time delay between two extreme-ultraviolet wave packets generated by a tandem undulator.

Synchrotron radiation, emitted by relativistic electrons traveling in a magnetic field, has poor temporal coherence. However, recent research has proved that time-domain interferometry experiments, which were thought to be enabled by only lasers of excellent temporal coherence, can be implemented with synchrotron radiation using a tandem undulator. The radiation generated by the tandem undulator comprises pairs of light wave packets, and the longitudinal coherence within a light wave packet pair is used to achieve time-domain interferometry. The time delay between two light wave packets, formed by a chicane for the electron trajectory, can be adjusted in the femtosecond range by a standard synchrotron technology. In this study, we show that frequency-domain spectra of the tandem undulator radiation exhibit fringe structures from which the time delay between a light wave packet pair can be determined with accuracy on the order of attoseconds. The feasibility and limitations of the frequency-domain interferometric determination of the time delay are examined.

Time domain double slit interference of electron produced by XUV synchrotron radiation.

We present a new realization of the time-domain double-slit experiment with photoelectrons, demonstrating that spontaneous radiation from a bunch of relativistic electrons can be used to control the quantum interference of single-particles. The double-slit arrangement is realized by a pair of light wave packets with attosecond-controlled spacing, which is naturally included in the spontaneous radiation from two undulators in series. Photoelectrons emitted from helium atoms are observed in the energy-domain under the condition of detecting them one by one, and the stochastic buildup of the quantum interference pattern on a detector plane is recorded.

A modified magnetic bottle electron spectrometer for the detection of multiply charged ions in coincidence with all correlated electrons: decay pathways to Xe3+ above xenon-4d ionization threshold.

Single-photon multiple photoionization results from electron correlations that make this process possible beyond the independent electron approximation. To study this phenomenon experimentally, the detection in coincidence of all emitted electrons is the most direct approach. It provides the relative contribution of all possible multiple ionization processes, the energy distribution between electrons that can reveal simultaneous or sequential mechanisms, and, if possible, the angular correlations between electrons. In the present work, we present a new magnet design of our magnetic bottle electron spectrometer that allows the detection of multiply charged Xen+ ions in coincidence with n electrons. This new coincidence detection allows more efficient extraction of minor channels that are otherwise masked by random coincidences. The proof of principle is provided for xenon triple ionization.

Double-pulsed wave packets in spontaneous radiation from a tandem undulator.

We verify that each wave packet of spontaneous radiation from two undulators placed in series has a double-pulsed temporal profile with pulse spacing which can be controlled at the attosecond level. Using a Mach-Zehnder interferometer operating at ultraviolet wavelengths, we obtain the autocorrelation trace for the spontaneous radiation from the tandem undulator. The results clearly show that the wave packet has a double-pulsed structure, consisting of a pair of 10-cycle oscillations with a variable separation. We also report the characterization of the time delay between the double-pulsed components in different wavelength regimes. The excellent agreement between the independent measurements confirms that a tandem undulator can be used to produce double-pulsed wave packets at arbitrary wavelength.

Electron Wave Packet Interference in Atomic Inner-Shell Excitation.

We report the observation of quantum interference between electron wave packets launched from the inner-shell 4d orbital of the Xe atom. Using pairs of femtosecond radiation wave packets from a synchrotron light source, we obtain time-domain interferograms for the inner-shell excitations. This approach enables the experimental verification and control of the quantum interference between the electron wave packets. Furthermore, the femtosecond Auger decay of the inner-shell excited state is tracked. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first observation of wave packet interference in an atomic inner-shell process, and also the first time-resolved experiment on few-femtosecond Auger decay using a synchrotron light source.

Multielectron-Ion Coincidence Spectroscopy of Xe in Extreme Ultraviolet Laser Fields: Nonlinear Multiple Ionization via Double Core-Hole States.

Ultrafast multiphoton ionization of Xe in strong extreme ultraviolet free-electron laser (FEL) fields (91 eV, 30 fs, 1.6×10^{12} W/cm^{2}) has been investigated by multielectron-ion coincidence spectroscopy. The electron spectra recorded in coincidence with Xe^{4+} show characteristic features associated with two-photon absorption to the 4d^{-2} double core-hole (DCH) states and subsequent Auger decay. It is found that the pathway via the DCH states, which has eluded clear identification in previous studies, makes a large contribution to the multiple ionization, despite the long FEL pulse duration compared with the lifetime of the 4d core-hole states.

Controlling the Orbital Alignment in Atoms Using Cross-Circularly Polarized Extreme Ultraviolet Wave Packets.

We report on the use of pairs of 10-cycle extreme ultraviolet wave packets with attosecond-controlled spacing emitted by individual relativistic electrons within an electron bunch passing through a tandem undulator. Based on the temporal coherent control technique with circular polarization, we succeeded in controlling the excited state alignment in the photoexcitation of helium atoms, which we verified through the observation of oscillation in fluorescence yield depending on the attosecond-controlled delay time. Our work demonstrates the potential of undulator radiation for the generation of longitudinally coherent wave packets suitable for attosecond coherent control, an application which has hitherto been hidden in the incoherent nature of the radiation pulse emitted by a bunch of electrons.

Double-core ionization photoelectron spectroscopy of C6H6: Breakdown of the "intuitive" ortho-meta-para binding energy ordering of K-1K-1 states.

Single-site Double-Core Hole (ss-DCH or K-2) and two-site Double-Core Hole (ts-DCH or K-1K-1) photoelectron spectra including satellite lines were experimentally recorded for the aromatic C6H6 molecule using the synchrotron radiation and multielectron coincidence technique. Density functional theory and post-Hartree-Fock simulations providing binding energies and relative intensities allow us to clearly assign the main K-2 line and its satellites. K-1K-1 states' positions and assignments are further identified using a core-equivalent model. We predict that, contrary to what has been observed in the C2H2n series of molecules, the K-1K-1 energy-level ordering in C6H6 does not reflect the core-hole distances between the two holes.

Coherent control in the extreme ultraviolet and attosecond regime by synchrotron radiation.

Quantum manipulation of populations and pathways in matter by light pulses, so-called coherent control, is currently one of the hottest research areas in optical physics and photochemistry. The forefront of coherent control research is moving rapidly into the regime of extreme ultraviolet wavelength and attosecond temporal resolution. This advance has been enabled by the development of high harmonic generation light sources driven by intense femtosecond laser pulses and by the advent of seeded free electron laser sources. Synchrotron radiation, which is usually illustrated as being of poor temporal coherence, hitherto has not been considered as a tool for coherent control. Here we show an approach based on synchrotron radiation to study coherent control in the extreme ultraviolet and attosecond regime. We demonstrate this capability by achieving wave-packet interferometry on Rydberg wave packets generated in helium atoms.

Single, double, and triple Auger decays from 1s shake-up states of the oxygen molecule.

The single, double, and triple Auger decays from the 1s shake-up states of O2 have been studied using a multi-electron coincidence method. Efficient populations of two-hole final states are observed in single Auger decays of the π-π* shake-up states, which is understood as a characteristic property of the Auger transitions from shake-up states of an open-shell molecule. The O23+ populations formed by double Auger decays show similar profiles for both the O1s-1 and shake-up states, which is due to the contributions from cascade double Auger processes. While the cascade contributions to the double Auger decays increase with the initial shake-up energy, the probability of direct double Auger processes remains unchanged between the O1s-1 and shake-up states, which implies a weak influence of the excited electron on the double Auger emission that originates from the electron correlation effect.

Stability and dissociation dynamics of N2 (++) ions following core ionization studied by an Auger-electron-photoion coincidence method.

An Auger-electron-photoion coincidence (AEPICO) method has been applied to study the stability and dissociation dynamics of dicationic states after the N K-shell photoionization of nitrogen molecules. From time-of-flight and kinetic energy analyses of the product ions, we have obtained coincident Auger spectra associated with metastable states of N2 (++) ions and dissociative states leading to N2 (++) → N(+) + N(+) and N(++) + N. To investigate the production of dissociative states, we present two-dimensional AEPICO maps which reveal the correlations between the binding energies of the Auger final states and the ion kinetic energy release. These correlations have been used to determine the dissociation limits of individual Auger final states.

Intra-tumor heterogeneity of BRAF V600E mutation in lung adenocarcinomas.

BRAF mutations exist in numerous types of cancer, including melanomas, colorectal cancers and lung cancers. The V600E-specific inhibitor vemurafenib has marked clinical activity in patients with BRAF V600E-mutated melanoma. However, there are many cases of resistance to vemurafenib. This may be due to the reported intra-tumor heterogeneity of the BRAF V600E mutation in primary melanomas. BRAF mutations are found in 1-5% of non-small cell carcinomas (NSCLCs), almost exclusively in adenocarcinoma. A few cases have been reported in which vemurafenib was effective against BRAF V600E-mutated lung cancers. In a previous study, five lung adenocarcinomas with BRAF V600E mutation were detected by direct sequencing. The present study analyzed these tumors for the percentage of mutation (%mutation) by competitive allele-specific polymerase chain reaction (CAST-PCR) assay. In addition, sections of all components of the adenocarcinomas were obtained by laser microdissection and analyzed. The %mutations of BRAF V600E within the macrodissected tumors (cases 1-5) were: Case 1, 10.0%; case 2, 8.0%; case 3, 8.9%; case 4, 21.5%; and case 5, 14.9%. In four cases (cases 2-5), the %mutations of each adenocarcinoma component were as follows: Case 2, lepidic growth 6.5-24.5%, papillary 1.3-11.2% and acinar 9.8%; case 3, solid 2.5-69.9%, acinar 12.4-27.1% and papillary 3.7-17.4%; case 4, acinar 10.0-45.0% and papillary 44.0%; and case 5, papillary 3.7-93.4%. Sensitive BRAF mutation detection methods were used and evidence for heterogeneity of the BRAF V600E mutation in these lung adenocarcinoma cases was observed. Targeted therapy with a BRAF V600E inhibitor such as vemurafenib may have potential in the treatment of lung cancer with this mutation; however, it is necessary to consider how the treatment effect of and drug resistance to BRAF V600E inhibitors are affected by the presence of heterogeneity in future studies.

Single photon simultaneous K-shell ionization and K-shell excitation. I. Theoretical model applied to the interpretation of experimental results on H2O.

We present in detail a theoretical model that provides absolute cross sections for simultaneous core-ionization core-excitation (K(-2)V) and compare its predictions with experimental results obtained on the water molecule after photoionization by synchrotron radiation. Two resonances of different symmetries are assigned in the main K(-2)V peak and comparable contributions from monopolar (direct shake-up) and dipolar (conjugate shake-up) core-valence excitations are identified. The main peak is observed with a much greater width than the total experimental resolution. This broadening is the signature of nuclear dynamics.

Single photon simultaneous K-shell ionization and K-shell excitation. II. Specificities of hollow nitrogen molecular ions.

The formalism developed in the companion Paper I is used here for the interpretation of spectra obtained recently on the nitrogen molecule. Double core-hole ionization K(-2) and core ionization-core excitation K(-2)V processes have been observed by coincidence electron spectroscopy after ionization by synchrotron radiation at different photon energies. Theoretical and experimental cross sections reported on an absolute scale are in satisfactory agreement. The evolution with photon energy of the relative contribution of shake-up and conjugate shake-up processes is discussed. The first main resonance in the K(-2)V spectrum is assigned to a K(-2)π(∗) state mainly populated by the 1s→ lowest unoccupied molecular orbital dipolar excitation, as it is in the K(-1)V NEXAFS (Near-Edge X-ray Absorption Fine Structure) signals. Closer to the K(-2) threshold Rydberg resonances have been also identified, and among them a K(-2)σ(∗) resonance characterized by a large amount of 2s/2p hybridization, and double K(-2)(2σ(∗)/1π/3σ)(-1)1π(∗2) shake-up states. These resonances correspond in NEXAFS spectra to, respectively, the well-known σ(∗) shape resonance and double excitation K(-1)(2σ(∗)/1π/3σ)(-1)1π(∗2) resonances, all being positioned above the threshold.

Dynamics of oxygen Rydberg atom generation following O 1s inner-shell excitation of H2O.

The emission of low-energy electrons from H2O has been investigated at photon excitation energies in the vicinity of the O 1s ionization threshold. Neutral oxygen Rydberg atoms (O*) were found to form, and the correlation between the initial inner-shell excited state of H2O and the Rydberg state of O* was determined. The initially excited electron in a Rydberg orbital is shown to remain associated with O* even after the cleavage of two O-H bonds. We also show that the energy discrepancy between two Rydberg states of H2O and O* can be explained by the influence of the post-collision interaction, which becomes stronger as the excitation energy approaches the 1s ionization threshold.

Near-edge x-ray absorption fine structures revealed in core ionization photoelectron spectroscopy.

Simultaneous core ionization and core excitation have been observed in the C(2)H(2n) (n=1, 2, 3) molecular series using synchrotron radiation and a magnetic bottle time-of-flight electron spectrometer. Rich satellite patterns corresponding to (K(-2)V) core excited states of the K(-1) molecular ions have been identified by detecting in coincidence the photoelectron with the two Auger electrons resulting from the double core hole relaxation. A theoretical model is proposed providing absolute photoionization cross sections and revealing clear signatures of direct (monopolar) and conjugate (dipolar near-edge x-ray absorption fine structure) shakeup lines of comparable magnitude.

Electron reemission processes following photoelectron recapture due to post-collision interaction in inner-shell photoionization of water molecules.

Electron reemission following photoelectron recapture due to post-collision interaction has been studied at 0.7 eV the inner-shell photoionization threshold of water molecules, using a multi-electron coincidence method. Electron reemissions after single Auger decay occur from O and OH fragments which are produced by the dissociations of high-n Rydberg H2O(+) states populated through photoelectron recapture. In addition, electron reemissions after double Auger decay are identified in triple coincidence events, where autoionization lines from O and O(+) fragments are observed.

Single photon K(-2) and K(-1)K(-1) double core ionization in C(2)H(2n) (n=1-3), CO, and N(2) as a potential new tool for chemical analysis.

We have observed single photon double K-shell photoionization in the C(2)H(2n) (n=1-3) hydrocarbon sequence and in N(2) and CO, using synchrotron radiation and electron coincidence spectroscopy. Our previous observations of the K(-2) process in these molecules are extended by the observations of a single photon double photoionization with one core hole created at each of the two neighboring atoms in the molecule (K(-1)K(-1) process). In the C(2)H(2n) sequence, the spectroscopy of K(-1)K(-1) states is much more sensitive to the bond length than conventional electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis spectroscopy based on single K-shell ionization. The cross section variation for single photon K(-1)K(-1) double core ionization in the C(2)H(2n) sequence and in the isoelectronic C(2)H(2n), N(2) and CO molecules validates a knock-out mechanism in which a primary ionized 1s photoelectron ejects another 1s electron of the neighbor atom. The specific Auger decay from such states is clearly observed in the CO case.

A local chemical environment effect in site-specific Auger spectra of ethyl trifluoroacetate.

We have investigated a local chemical environment effect on Auger spectra of ethyl trifluoroacetate (C(4)H(5)F(3)O(2)), using multi-electron coincidence spectroscopy and high-resolution electron spectroscopy. Site-specific KVV Auger spectra for each carbon atom, and for the fluorine and oxygen atoms are presented. The extent of hole localization in the final dicationic states was investigated with the help of theoretical calculations based on a two-hole population analysis. The Auger spectra have been simulated using a statistical approach. It is found that all Auger decays populate mainly localized dicationic states, with the two holes located either on the same fluorine atom or on adjacent fluorine atoms. While the decay of the F 1s hole populates exclusively the former states, the latter class of states is also populated by the decay of the C and O 1s holes.