Summer and school-term youth employment: ecological and longitudinal analyses.

The effects of summer versus school-year employment on self-esteem, peer relationships, and family social climate were investigated in a sample of 135 adolescents. Students were assessed the summer before entrance into high school and during the second semester of high school, using a longitudinal design. Cross-sectional findings indicated that, during the summer, 52 workers possessed higher self-esteem than 79 nonworkers. Longitudinal analysis indicated that 10 girls who worked only during the school term reported increases in both stress and activity with peers. At our final assessment, the families of 49 students who did not work at either time had become more conflicted and less cohesive than families of all other students. The developmental implications of these results are discussed.

The relation of peer social support and psychological symptomatology during the transition to junior high school: a two-year longitudinal analysis.

Studied the longitudinal relation of peer social support and psychological symptomatology among a sample of 143 early adolescents during a two-year period spanning the transition from elementary school to junior high school. Correlational analyses indicated strong inverse relations between peer support and symptoms, both cross sectionally and across time. Prospective analyses investigated the degree to which prior levels of peer support were related to subsequent symptoms after controlling for initial levels of symptoms and, conversely, the degree to which prior symptoms were related to future levels of peer support after controlling for initial levels of support. A significant prospective effect for peer support was found only for the specific period encompassing the school change. Prospective effects for symptoms were more numerous and of longer duration. The discussion emphasizes how the relation among support, stress, and mental health may differ over the course of a major life transition. Implications are also considered for the timing of preventive interventions.

Self-esteem in early adolescence: The identification and prediction of contrasting longitudinal trajectories.

The present study focused on differences in self-esteem trajectory in early adolescence rather than on average change across all children. Longitudinal data from 128 adolescents were obtained over a 2-year period that encompassed the transition from elementary school to junior high school. Cluster analysis revealed four markedly divergent self-esteem trajectories: consistently high (35%), chronically low (13%), steeply declining (21%), and small increase (31%). Attempts to predict trajectories were only partially successful. Peer social support was the strongest predictor, but its relation to self-esteem appears more circumscribed than had been thought. The discussion considers differences in the experience of early adolescence, as well as implications for the design and evaluation of preventive intervention.

The adaptation of black graduate students: a social network approach.

Despite the importance of increasing the number of graduate degrees awarded to members of minority groups, there has been little research on how minority students adapt to the graduate school environment. The present study examined how social integration and social support were related to academic performance and psychological well-being among 89 black graduate and professional students. Findings indicate that black graduate students were not well integrated into their academic environment. Students in relatively more integrated departments were better adjusted, had higher grades, and perceived themselves to be making good progress in their graduate work. These students were also less likely to have considered dropping out of school. Frequency of out-of-school contact with black faculty and the number of black students in the department were important social integration and social support variables. The implications of these findings for minority student retention are discussed.

School and neighborhood friendship patterns of blacks and whites in early adolescence.

This research examined the school and neighborhood friendships of 292 black and white children who attended an integrated junior high school. Most students reported having a close other-race school friend, but only 28% of the sample saw such a friend frequently outside of school. Reports of an interracial school friendship that extended to nonschool settings were significantly more common among black students than whites and among children who lived in integrated neighborhoods rather than segregated ones. Race differences in reported friendship behavior were also found on other friendship variables. Compared to whites, blacks reported more extensive neighborhood friendship networks but indicated that they talked to fewer friends during the school day. In addition, the study replicated prior findings that white girls report more peer social support than white boys but failed to find a gender difference in peer support among blacks. The discussion emphasizes the importance of the school/nonschool ecology and the need for further comparative study of white and black children's friendship patterns.

Maternal social networks and mother-infant interactions in full-term and very low birthweight, preterm infants.

The relation between maternal social networks and mother-infant interactions at 6 months of age was examined in 34 mother-preterm and 20 mother-full-term dyads. All preterm infants were of very low birthweight and experienced medical complications. Mothers were interviewed regarding their social networks; ratings of maternal behaviors were derived from videotaped mother-infant interactions. There were few between-group differences in mean levels of network variables; however, the association between network structure and maternal sensitivity differed in the 2 groups. A larger number of ties between the mother's family of origin and the mother's friends related to higher maternal sensitivity in full-terms but to lower maternal sensitivity in preterms. The birth of a full-term infant is typically a positive event around which a tightly knit network can coalesce to support the mother. It is less clear that the birth of a preterm infant is a positive event, leaving network members unsure of their roles and how to respond. Under the latter circumstances, fewer ties among network members may decrease the likelihood of ambiguous or stressful communications.

Identity commitments and coping with a difficult developmental transition.

This longitudinal study examines the effects of contrasting social identities (social vs. academic) on coping responses and adjustment among 32 college freshmen on academic probation. Multiple adjustment indices (depression, college life satisfaction, and academic performance) are assessed at the start and end of the probation semester. Coping responses were assessed in a midsemester interview. Few between-group differences were found on mean levels of coping responses. However, the association between particular coping responses and adjustment indices differed for academically vs. socially oriented students. The effective coping responses were those that were consonant with social identities. Positive social involvements were more effective for socially oriented students, while positive academic involvements were more effective for the academically oriented. These findings remained significant even after controlling for baseline measures of outcomes. Implications are discussed for understanding social support and coping in the context of lifespan development.

The transition to junior high school: a longitudinal study of self-esteem, psychological symptomatology, school life, and social support.

This research examined the psychological well-being of 159 white and black students during the transition to junior high school. Adjustment patterns were found to be complex and highly differentiated. Self-esteem was unchanged from the end of sixth through the middle of seventh grades, rising by the end of seventh grade. Girls reported an increase in depressive and other symptoms over time relative to boys. Perceived quality of school life plunged. Peer social support increased only for blacks of high academic competence. Although there were no race differences on overall self-esteem, multivariate analyses of symptom data revealed that blacks reported greater distrust of the environment than they reported negative internal states, whereas whites reported the opposite pattern. The discussion emphasizes the developmental and ecological context of the transition.

Multiple roles, social networks, and women's well-being.

In contrast to earlier approaches to the study of multiple roles, our research was concerned with the frequency and conditions under which both positive and negative outcomes occur. Using data from a random sample of 235 married female nurses, we focused on marital and job satisfaction as important criteria of success in managing multiple roles. In the first phase of the research, a cluster analysis identified five different profiles of marital and job satisfaction. Of the two most positive profiles, one was defined by high scores in both areas, the other by high job satisfaction but only moderate marital satisfaction. In two other profiles, women were very dissatisfied with one role and at best moderately satisfied with the other. In the second phase, the profiles were found to be meaningfully associated with measures of psychological symptomatology and overall life satisfaction. The third phase considered how the profiles were linked to measures of social support and social rejection provided by five key network members. The strongest univariate profile discriminator was the level of work rejection from the spouse. A discriminant function analysis revealed that the level of spouse's work rejection was even more powerful when it was compared to the level of work rejection received from the next closest family member (typically the mother).

Social networks and adult social identities: profiles and correlates of support and rejection.

The growth of interest in social networks has underscored the need for integrative analyses of network dimensions. A three-pronged strategy to achieve this objective was pursued in a study of 261 married women nurses. First, network variables related to important adult social identities were differentiated. Factor analyses revealed four network interaction factors: work support, work rejection, general support, and general rejection. An additional factor analysis differentiated work associates from nonwork network members. Second, cluster analysis of these factor scores identified five different network profiles. The profiles differed in the importance of the woman's work to her nonwork ties as well as the frequency and pattern of different positive and negative interactions. Third, individuals with these contrasting network profiles differed on levels of life satisfaction and psychological symptomatology. The discussion emphasizes social network differences within the broader context of the ecology of human development.

Adolescent coping and support across multiple social environments.

This paper considers how research on stress, coping, and social support in adolescence may be informed by a social ecological perspective. Two case studies are presented which examine contrasting strategies by which adolescents at risk may cope successfully. One strategy focuses on the use of a strong peer social network, the other on the use of school involvements. In both cases, the analyses emphasize coping and social network processes across multiple social environments. Preventive social-community interventions are suggested to circumvent potential trouble spots associated with the use of these strategies.

Social networks and work/nonwork life: action-research with nurse managers.

An action-research project with hospital nurses is reported which explores the utility of social network analysis for understanding and enhancing the quality of work life. Based on a framework for conceptualizing work stressors, we present a rationale for developing resource-support groups. These groups combine emotional support, group problem-solving, and participatory decision-making within the context of developing programs and policies to enhance the quality of working life. A workshop help for nurse managers focused on the potential for using these groups to achieve specific, prioritized goals. To study the ecology of work/nonwork life, we obtained data from workshop participants on both their work and nonwork social networks. We found these to be almost totally segmented. Personal, organizational, and sociocultural variables that may account for this pattern are examined. Implications are also discussed for developing support programs and for empowering nursing as a profession.

Coping and adaptation in high-risk populations: toward an integrative model.

The identification of factors that promote health in high-risk populations could increase our ability to understand and prevent the development of psychopathology. Although previous studies have suggested several coping variables that affect adaptation, these findings remain fragmentary and in need of integration within a multifactorial model. I propose studying the role of the social network in the coping process as an integrative framework for developing this model and describe two studies using this approach. In the first study of college students during final exams, low-density networks were associated with more satisfying emotional support. In the second study of recent young widows and mature women returning to college, low-density, multidimensional networks were again associated with more satisfying support, as well as better mood, fewer symptoms, and higher self-esteem. A coping strategy based on membership in such networks is described. This strategy integrates resources in several personal and environmental domains. Theoretical and empirical guidelines are suggested for delineating alternative coping strategies of equivalent adaptive value.