The relations between growth mindset, motivational beliefs, and career interest in math intensive fields in informal STEM youth programs.

Past research has shown that growth mindset and motivational beliefs have an important role in math and science career interest in adolescence. Drawing on situated expectancy-value theory (SEVT), this study extends these findings by investigating the role of parental motivational beliefs (e.g., expectancy beliefs, utility values) and parent growth mindset in math on adolescent career interest in math-intensive fields (e.g., mathematics, computer science, statistics, and engineering; MCSE) through adolescent motivational beliefs in math. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized model using data from 290 adolescents (201 girls, 69.3%; Mage = 15.20), who participate in informal STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) youth programs, and their parents (162 parents, 87.7% female) in the United Kingdom and the United States. As hypothesized, adolescent expectancy beliefs, utility values, and growth mindset in math had a significant direct effect on MCSE career interest. Further, there was a significant indirect effect of parental expectancy beliefs in math on MCSE career interest through adolescents' expectancy beliefs. Similarly, there was a significant indirect effect from parental utility values in math to MCSE career interest through adolescents' utility values. The findings suggest that parents' math motivational beliefs play a critical role in adolescent math motivational beliefs and their career interest in math-intensive fields.

Children's and adolescents' evaluations of wealth-related STEM inequality.

The fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) are rife with inequalities and under-representation that have their roots in childhood. While researchers have focused on gender and race/ethnicity as two key dimensions of inequality, less attention has been paid to wealth. To this end, and drawing from the Social Reasoning Development approach, we examined children's and adolescents' perceptions of STEM ability and access to opportunities as a function of wealth, as well as their desire to rectify such inequalities. Participants (n = 234: early childhood, n = 70, mean age = 6.33, SD = .79; middle childhood, n = 92, mean age = 8.90, SD = .83 and early adolescence, n = 62, mean age = 12.00; SD = 1.16) in the U.K. (64% White British) and U.S. (40% White/European American) read about two characters, one high-wealth and one low-wealth. In early childhood, participants reported that the high-wealth character would have greater STEM ability and were just as likely to invite either character to take part in a STEM opportunity. By middle childhood, participants were more likely to report equal STEM abilities for both characters and to seek to rectify inequalities by inviting the low-wealth character to take part in a STEM opportunity. However, older participants reported that peers would still prefer to invite the high-wealth character. These findings also varied by ethnic group status, with minority status participants rectifying inequalities at a younger age than majority status participants. Together these findings document that children are aware of STEM inequalities based on wealth and, with age, will increasingly seek to rectify these inequalities.

Developmental Trajectories of Adolescents' Math Motivation: The Role of Mindset and Perceptions of Informal STEM Learning Site Inclusivity.

Motivation is a key factor in engagement, achievement, and career choices in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). While existing research has focused on student motivation toward math in formal school programs, new work is needed that focuses on motivation for those involved in informal STEM programs. Specifically, the role of math mindset and perceived inclusivity of informal STEM sites (to those of varying gender and ethnic backgrounds) on longitudinal trajectories of adolescents' math motivation has not been explored. This study investigates longitudinal changes in math expectancy, interest, and utility values and the effects of math fixed mindset, math growth mindset, and perceptions of the inclusivity of informal STEM learning sites on these changes for adolescents participating in STEM programs at these informal sites in the United Kingdom and the United States (n = 249, MT1age = 15.2, SD = 1.59). Three latent growth curve models were tested. The data suggest that math expectancy, interest, and utility values declined over three years. Growth mindset positively predicted changes in utility, while fixed mindset negatively predicted changes in utility. Inclusivity positively influenced the initial levels of utility. Girls reported lower initial expectancy than boys. Age influenced both the initial levels and rate of change for expectancy. Older adolescents had lower levels of expectancy compared to their younger counterparts; however, they had a less steep decline in expectancy over three years. These findings suggest that designing inclusive learning environments and promoting growth mindset may encourage math motivation.

Daily Fluctuations in Adolescents' Perceived Friend Dominance and Friendship Clout: Associations with Mood and the Moderating Role of Anxiety.

Emerging evidence suggests that whereas occupying high peer status promotes adolescents' well-being, feeling dominated by friends confers psychological costs. However, little is known about day-to-day power dynamics of adolescents' friendships or their acute affective consequences. This 14-day intensive longitudinal study introduced novel daily assessments of friend dominance and friendship clout, examined their associations with mood, and tested anxiety as a moderator. Participants were 195 11th-graders (Mage = 16.48, SDage = 0.35; 66% female). Multilevel models revealed that adolescents experienced worse mood on days they felt dominated by friends and better mood on days they felt powerful and influential among friends. Associations with negative mood were strongest for adolescents higher in anxiety. The findings underscore the dynamic nature of power in adolescents' friendships.

Reciprocal Associations Between Science Efficacy, STEM Identity and Scientist Career Interest Among Adolescent Girls within the Context of Informal Science Learning.

Limited research has explored the longitudinal pathway to youth career interests via identity and efficacy together. This study examined the longitudinal associations between science efficacy, STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) identity, and scientist career interest among girls who are historically considered as an underrepresented group among scientists. The sample included 308 girls (M age = 15.22, SD age = 1.66; 42.8% White) from six STEM youth programs, each at a different informal science learning site within the U.K. and the U.S. Longitudinal structural equation modelling demonstrated that science efficacy consistently predicted STEM identity and scientist career interest, and similarly, STEM identity consistently predicted science efficacy over a two-year period. Scientist career interest at 12 months predicted science efficacy at 24 months. The coefficients of efficacy predicting STEM identity and scientist career interest were significantly larger compared to STEM identity and scientist career interest in predicting science efficacy from 12 months to 24 months. Further mediation analysis supported a significant pathway from STEM identity at 3 months to scientist career interest at 24 months via 12-month science efficacy. The findings highlight that science efficacy and STEM identity for girls relate to their scientist career interest and these longitudinal associations are reciprocal. This study suggests that science efficacy and STEM identity mutually influence each other, and enhancing science efficacy and STEM identity is key to promoting adolescents' interest in being a scientist.

Preparing the Next Generation for STEM: Adolescent Profiles Encompassing Math and Science Motivation and Interpersonal Skills and Their Associations With Identity and Belonging.

Science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) workers need both motivation and interpersonal skills in STEM disciplines. The aims of the study were to identify clusters of adolescents who vary in math and science motivation and interpersonal skills and to explore what factors are related to membership in a high math and science motivation and interpersonal skills cluster. Participants included 467 adolescents (312 female; Mage = 15.12 to SD = 1.71 year) recruited from out-of-school STEM programs in the US and UK. Findings from latent class analyses revealed four clusters, including a "High Math and Science Motivation and Interpersonal Skills" group, as well as groups that exhibited lower levels of either motivation or interpersonal skills. STEM program belonging, and STEM identity are related to membership in the high motivation and skills cluster. Findings provide insight into factors that may encourage motivation and interpersonal skills in adolescents, preparing them for STEM workforce entry.

The importance of trust in the relation between COVID-19 information from social media and well-being among adolescents and young adults.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, young people have been exposed to distressing content about COVID-19 without knowing whether they can trust such content. This indicates a need to examine the effects of social media use on mental health and well-being. Existing research provides an inconsistent impression of such effects. Thus, we examined the relation between exposure to COVID-19 information on social media and well-being and assessed if trust in COVID-19 information on social media moderated this relationship. The sample consisted of 168 adolescents and young adults from the U.K. and U.S. (Mage = 17.4 years). Participants completed measures of exposure to, and trust in, COVID-19 information on social media platforms, and measures of emotional, psychological, and social well-being. Results revealed a null to positive relation between exposure to COVID-19 information on social media and well-being across measures. However, when trust was added to the models as a moderator, results indicated that, for adolescents with higher levels of trust in COVID-19 information found on social media, the relation between information encountered on social media and well-being was positive. In contrast, for adolescents with lower levels of trust, the association between information encountered on social media and well-being was null or sometimes negative. Given the lack of consensus about the impact of social media use on well-being, these results point to the importance of trust when assessing the relationship between exposure to COVID-19 information and well-being.

The Power Dynamics of Friendship: Between- and Within- Person Associations among Friend Dominance, Self-Esteem, and Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms.

Although forming close, egalitarian peer relationships is a central developmental task of adolescence, little is known about the psychological consequences of power imbalances in adolescents' friendships. The current study investigated whether there are psychological costs of feeling subordinate to friends by examining longitudinal associations between adolescents' perceived friend dominance and internalizing symptoms. Across one year, five waves of survey data were collected from 388 adolescents (Mage = 14.05, SDage = 0.41; 61% female; 46% White, 19% Black, 17% Asian, 6% Arab, Middle Eastern, North African, 6% Biracial/Multiethnic, 3% Latinx/Hispanic, 1% American Indian/Native American, 1% identifying with another race/ethnicity, <1% not reporting). Multilevel modeling disentangled between- and within-person effects of perceived friend dominance on depressive and anxiety (internalizing) symptoms and tested self-esteem as a mediator. The results indicated that both individual differences and intraindividual fluctuations in perceived friend dominance were associated with internalizing symptoms. At the between-person level, adolescents who perceived their friends as more dominant reported more severe depressive and anxiety symptoms than adolescents who perceived their friends as less dominant. At the within-person level, increases in perceived friend dominance were accompanied by increases in depressive and anxiety symptoms, and these associations were partially explained by changes in self-esteem. The findings advance understanding of power dynamics in adolescents' close friendships and highlight the psychological toll of feeling dominated by friends.

Interest, Mindsets and Engagement: Longitudinal Relations in Science Orientations for Adolescents in Informal Science Programs.

Little is known about the factors that influence engagement for adolescents participating in informal youth science programs. This study examined longitudinal reciprocal associations between adolescents' science engagement, interest, and growth mindset. Participants were adolescents (Mage = 15.06, SD = 1.82 years, 66.8% female) from the UK (n = 168) and the US (n = 299). A cross lagged path analysis indicated that participants' science growth mindset at baseline was positively related to interest, and engagement at year 1, and science interest at year 1 was positively related to growth mindset at year 2. Additionally, girls had lower science growth mindsets than boys. This evidence suggests that informal programs may encourage positive STEM trajectories by fostering engagement, growth mindset and interest.

Peer victimization, schooling format, and adolescent internalizing symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic: Between- and within-person associations across ninth grade.

The current longitudinal study examined how between-person (BP) differences and within-person (WP) fluctuations in adolescents' peer victimization and schooling format across ninth grade related to changes in their internalizing symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were 388 adolescents (61% female; M age = 14.02) who completed three online surveys, administered 3 months apart, from November 2020 to May 2021. Multilevel modeling revealed BP (time-invariant) and WP (time-varying) effects of peer victimization and school instructional format (i.e., in-person; hybrid; online) on internalizing symptoms while accounting for potentially confounding demographic (e.g., gender) and contextual (e.g., COVID-19 positivity rates) factors. Results indicated that adolescents who experienced higher overall levels of peer victimization across the school year, compared to those who experienced lower victimization, reported more severe internalizing symptoms. Whereas relative WP increases in peer victimization predicted corresponding increases in adolescents' depressive and somatic symptoms regardless of schooling format, WP increases in peer victimization only predicted elevated anxiety during months when students attended fully in-person, but not online, school. Adolescents who spent a greater proportion of their school year attending online school also reported less peer victimization across the year. Findings highlight WP fluctuations in the effects of peer victimization on internalizing and contextual variations depending on schooling format.

Promoting Diverse Youth's Career Development through Informal Science Learning: The Role of Inclusivity and Belonging.

Little research has examined the associations between perceived inclusivity within informal science learning sites, youth program belonging and perceptions of program career preparation. This study explored relations between these factors at three timepoints (T1 = start of program, T2 = 3 months and T3 = 12 months after start). Participants were a diverse sample of 209 adolescents participating in STEM youth programs within informal science learning sites situated in the United States and United Kingdom (70% females: M age = 15.27, SD age = 1.60), with 53.1% British and 64.1% non-White. Path analysis revealed that only perceptions of inclusivity for own social identity group (i.e., gender, ethnicity) at T1 were associated with T2 STEM youth program belonging. There was a significant indirect effect of T1 perceptions of inclusivity for one's own social identity groups on T3 perceptions of program career preparation via T2 program belonging. This study highlights that, over time, perceptions of inclusivity around youth's own social identity groups (i.e., gender and ethnicity/culture) are related to a sense of youth program belonging, which in turn is later associated with perceptions of program career preparation.

Gender Stereotypes and Peer Selection in STEM Domains Among Children and Adolescents.

Gender stereotypes are harmful for girls' enrollment and performance in science and mathematics. So far, less is known about children's and adolescents' stereotypes regarding technology and engineering. In the current study, participants' (N = 1,206, girls n = 623; 5-17-years-old, M = 8.63, SD = 2.81) gender stereotypes for each of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) domains were assessed along with the relation between these stereotypes and a peer selection task in a STEM context. Participants reported beliefs that boys are usually more skilled than are girls in the domains of engineering and technology; however, participants did not report gender differences in ability/performance in science and mathematics. Responses to the stereotype measures in favor of one's in-group were greater for younger participants than older participants for both boys and girls. Perceptions that boys are usually better than girls at science were related to a greater likelihood of selecting a boy for help with a science question. These findings document the importance of domain specificity, even within STEM, in attempts to measure and challenge gender stereotypes in childhood and adolescence.

On shaky grounds: Peer victimization predicts friendship instability across the ninth grade school year.

INTRODUCTION: Although prior research has considered how friendship quality or quantity influence peer victimization risk and vice versa, considerably less is known about how friendship instability (i.e., high levels of friend turnover) and peer victimization may be related to each other across time. METHODS: Survey data were collected from 9th grade students (N = 388; Mage = 14.05; 60.60% female; 35.8% male; 1.8% non-binary; 1.9% trans/unsure/something else) across 3-month intervals spanning one school year. Using cross-lagged panel modeling, this study investigated cross-lagged longitudinal associations between friendship instability and peer victimization utilizing three waves of data collected across one academic year. RESULTS: Adolescents experiencing greater peer victimization at the beginning of the school year were more likely to experience friendship instability by the end of the school year. However, friendship instability at the beginning of the school year was unrelated to subsequent peer victimization. CONCLUSION: Peer victimized adolescents are less likely than their nonvictimized peers to maintain stable friendships over time. Findings suggest that adolescents who are victimized by peers after transitioning to high school may have difficulty maintaining friendships.

Belonging in diverse contexts: Sociability among same-ethnic and cross-ethnic peers.

Ethnically and racially diverse schools provide students opportunities to socially interact with both same- and cross-ethnic peers that can shape their sense of belonging within a school. This study investigates the extent to which same- or cross-ethnic friends influence feelings of school belonging in two large, diverse U.S. high schools (total N = 4,461; 9th-12th grade; 49.6% girls). Employing a longitudinal social network analytic approach, using stochastic actor-oriented modeling, this study found that students become more similar or stay similar to their same-ethnic friends, but not cross-ethnic friends, with no clear indication that students select friends based on similar levels of belonging. These novel findings highlight how feelings of school belonging are fostered through sociability in same-ethnic friend groups. Implications for interventions and other approaches to enhance school belonging are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Investigating the relation between ethnic-racial identity and classroom engagement among Cherokee adolescents: Cultural socialization as a moderator.

OBJECTIVE: Ethnic-racial identity is an important factor that can promote classroom engagement among ethnic-racial minority adolescents. However, the relationship between ethnic-racial identity and academic engagement remains severely understudied among Native American youth, who report some of the lowest levels of classroom engagement among ethnic-racial minority youth in the United States. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the relation between ethnic-racial identity and classroom engagement among Cherokee youth. Further, we sought to examine the role of parental cultural socialization as a factor that could moderate this association. METHOD: The analytic sample consisted of 211 Cherokee adolescents (M = 12.72, SD = .97; female = 52%). Participants were recruited from Grades 6 to 8 from one tribal (60% or n = 126) and two public (40% or n = 85) middle schools. Adolescents completed survey measures of ethnic-racial centrality, private regard, public regard, parental pride socialization, parental preparation for bias socialization, and classroom engagement. RESULTS: Analyses showed that ethnic-racial centrality and regard were positively associated with classroom engagement. Furthermore, pride socialization enhanced the relation between private regard and engagement. Unexpectedly, preparation for bias mitigated the relation between public regard and engagement. CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates an important association between ethnic-racial identity and classroom engagement for Cherokee youth. Furthermore, findings highlight the importance of parental cultural socialization as a potential malleable factor that can enhance or diminish the relation between ethnic-racial identity and classroom engagement for Cherokee adolescents. These results suggest that encouraging parental cultural socialization, particularly pride socialization, may be beneficial in promoting classroom engagement for Cherokee youth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Assessing adolescents' critical health literacy: How is trust in government leadership associated with knowledge of COVID-19?

This study explored relations between COVID-19 news source, trust in COVID-19 information source, and COVID-19 health literacy in 194 STEM-oriented adolescents and young adults from the US and the UK. Analyses suggest that adolescents use both traditional news (e.g., TV or newspapers) and social media news to acquire information about COVID-19 and have average levels of COVID-19 health literacy. Hierarchical linear regression analyses suggest that the association between traditional news media and COVID-19 health literacy depends on participants' level of trust in their government leader. For youth in both the US and the UK who used traditional media for information about COVID-19 and who have higher trust in their respective government leader (i.e., former US President Donald Trump and UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson) had lower COVID-19 health literacy. Results highlight how youth are learning about the pandemic and the importance of not only considering their information source, but also their levels of trust in their government leaders.

Science and Math Interest and Gender Stereotypes: The Role of Educator Gender in Informal Science Learning Sites.

Interest in science and math plays an important role in encouraging STEM motivation and career aspirations. This interest decreases for girls between late childhood and adolescence. Relatedly, positive mentoring experiences with female teachers can protect girls against losing interest. The present study examines whether visitors to informal science learning sites (ISLS; science centers, zoos, and aquariums) differ in their expressed science and math interest, as well as their science and math stereotypes following an interaction with either a male or female educator. Participants (n = 364; early childhood, n = 151, M age = 6.73; late childhood, n = 136, M age = 10.01; adolescence, n = 59, M age = 13.92) were visitors to one of four ISLS in the United States and United Kingdom. Following an interaction with a male or female educator, they reported their math and science interest and responded to math and science gender stereotype measures. Female participants reported greater interest in math following an interaction with a female educator, compared to when they interacted with a male educator. In turn, female participants who interacted with a female educator were less likely to report male-biased math gender stereotypes. Self-reported science interest did not differ as a function of educator gender. Together these findings suggest that, when aiming to encourage STEM interest and challenge gender stereotypes in informal settings, we must consider the importance of the gender of educators and learners.

Ethnic-racial identity, gender identity, and well-being in Cherokee early adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: We examined ethnic-racial and gender identities and their relations to self-esteem and well-being among Cherokee early adolescents. We also explored gender differences in the significance to boys and girls of ethnic-racial and gender identities. METHOD: The sample consisted of 212 Cherokee 6th, 7th, and 8th grade girls and boys (Mage = 12.7 years). Adolescents completed survey measures of gender and ethnic-racial centrality, gender private regard, ethnic-racial private regard, ethnic-racial public regard, self-esteem, and three measures of well-being. RESULTS: Both genders reported high levels of the importance of being Cherokee to their identity (i.e., centrality), and strong positive attitudes toward being Cherokee (i.e., ethnic-racial private regard). Boys perceived gender as more important and more positive than girls. Among girls, ethnic-racial identity was more central and was viewed more positively than their gender identity. Mean levels of ethnic-racial and gender centrality did not differ for boys, nor did their reports of ethnic-racial and gender private regard. Youth's perceptions that others hold Cherokees in high regard (public regard) decreased across the grade levels. For both boys and girls, gender identity dimensions had stronger relations than ethnic-racial identity to psychosocial outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: For this sample of Cherokee adolescents, ethnic-racial identity held more prominence for girls than for boys, although aspects of gender identity were more strongly related to well-being for both genders. Results of the study indicate the significance of considering multiple identities in understanding identity development in American Indian adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The Relations and Role of Social Competencies and Belonging with Math and Science Interest and Efficacy for Adolescents in Informal STEM Programs.

Adolescence represents a developmental period of waning academic motivation, particularly in STEM domains. To combat this, better understanding the factors that might foster STEM motivation and interest is of importance. Social factors like social competencies and feelings of belonging become increasingly important in adolescence. The current study investigated structural relations between social competencies, feelings of belonging to an informal STEM learning program, math and science efficacy and interest in a sample of 268 adolescents (Mage = 15.25; 66.8% girls; 42.5% White British or European American, 25.7% South Asian British or Asian American, 15.7% Afro-Caribbean Black British or African American 5.6% Bi-racial, and 3.0% other). Adolescents were recruited from six different informal learning sites (e.g., science museums, zoos, or aquariums) in the United States (n = 147) and the United Kingdom (n = 121). The results revealed positive relations between social competencies and belonging, and between belonging and math and science efficacy and interest. Further, the results also indicated a positive indirect effect of social competencies on efficacy and interest, via belonging. These findings have implications for guiding informal STEM programming in ways that can enhance STEM motivation and interest.