The mycorrhiza-dependent defensin MtDefMd1 of Medicago truncatula acts during the late restructuring stages of arbuscule-containing cells.

Different symbiotic and pathogenic plant-microbe interactions involve the production of cysteine-rich antimicrobial defensins. In Medicago truncatula, the expression of four MtDefMd genes, encoding arbuscular mycorrhiza-dependent defensins containing an N-terminal signal peptide and exhibiting some differences to non-symbiotic defensins, raised over the time of fungal colonization. Whereas the MtDefMd1 and MtDefMd2 promoters were inactive in cells containing young arbuscules, cells with fully developed arbuscules displayed different levels of promoter activities, indicating an up-regulation towards later stages of arbuscule formation. MtDefMd1 and MtDefMd2 expression was absent or strongly down-regulated in mycorrhized ram1-1 and pt4-2 mutants, known for defects in arbuscule branching or premature arbuscule degeneration, respectively. A ~97% knock-down of MtDefMd1/MtDefMd2 expression did not significantly affect arbuscule size. Although overexpression of MtDefMd1 in arbuscule-containing cells led to an up-regulation of MtRam1, encoding a key transcriptional regulator of arbuscule formation, no morphological changes were evident. Co-localization of an MtDefMd1-mGFP6 fusion with additional, subcellular markers revealed that this defensin is associated with arbuscules in later stages of their life-cycle. MtDefMd1-mGFP6 was detected in cells with older arbuscules about to collapse, and ultimately in vacuolar compartments. Comparisons with mycorrhized roots expressing a tonoplast marker indicated that MtDefMd1 acts during late restructuring processes of arbuscule-containing cells, upon their transition into a post-symbiotic state.

Pre-announcement of symbiotic guests: transcriptional reprogramming by mycorrhizal lipochitooligosaccharides shows a strict co-dependency on the GRAS transcription factors NSP1 and RAM1.

BACKGROUND: More than 80 % of all terrestrial plant species establish an arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) symbiosis with Glomeromycota fungi. This plant-microbe interaction primarily improves phosphate uptake, but also supports nitrogen, mineral, and water aquisition. During the pre-contact stage, the AM symbiosis is controled by an exchange of diffusible factors from either partner. Amongst others, fungal signals were identified as a mix of sulfated and non-sulfated lipochitooligosaccharides (LCOs), being structurally related to rhizobial nodulation (Nod)-factor LCOs that in legumes induce the formation of nitrogen-fixing root nodules. LCO signals are transduced via a common symbiotic signaling pathway (CSSP) that activates a group of GRAS transcription factors (TFs). Using complex gene expression fingerprints as molecular phenotypes, this study primarily intended to shed light on the importance of the GRAS TFs NSP1 and RAM1 for LCO-activated gene expression during pre-symbiotic signaling. RESULTS: We investigated the genome-wide transcriptional responses in 5 days old primary roots of the Medicago truncatula wild type and four symbiotic mutants to a 6 h challenge with LCO signals supplied at 10(-7/-8) M. We were able to show that during the pre-symbiotic stage, sulfated Myc-, non-sulfated Myc-, and Nod-LCO-activated gene expression almost exclusively depends on the LysM receptor kinase NFP and is largely controled by the CSSP, although responses independent of this pathway exist. Our results show that downstream of the CSSP, gene expression activation by Myc-LCOs supplied at 10(-7/-8) M strictly required both the GRAS transcription factors RAM1 and NSP1, whereas those genes either co- or specifically activated by Nod-LCOs displayed a preferential NSP1-dependency. RAM1, a central regulator of root colonization by AM fungi, controled genes activated by non-sulfated Myc-LCOs during the pre-symbiotic stage that are also up-regulated in areas with early physical contact, e.g. hyphopodia and infecting hyphae; linking responses to externally applied LCOs with early root colonization. CONCLUSIONS: Since both RAM1 and NSP1 were essential for the pre-symbiotic transcriptional reprogramming by Myc-LCOs, we propose that downstream of the CSSP, these GRAS transcription factors act synergistically in the transduction of those diffusible signals that pre-announce the presence of symbiotic fungi.

Spatial gene expression analysis in tomato hypocotyls suggests cysteine as key precursor of vascular sulfur accumulation implicated in Verticillium dahliae defense.

Verticillium dahliae is a prominent generator of plant vascular wilting disease and sulfur (S)-enhanced defense (SED) mechanisms contribute to its in-planta elimination. The accumulation of S-containing defense compounds (SDCs) including elemental S (S(0) ) has been described based on the comparison of two near-isogenic tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) lines differing in fungal susceptibility. To better understand the effect of S nutrition on V. dahliae resistance both lines were supplied with low, optimal or supraoptimal sulfate-S. An absolute quantification demonstrated a most effective fungal elimination due to luxury plant S nutrition. High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) showed a strong regulation of Cys levels and an S-responsive GSH pool rise in the bulk hypocotyl. High-frequency S peak accumulations were detected in vascular bundles of resistant tomato plants after fungal colonization by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Global transcriptomic analysis suggested that early steps of the primary S metabolism did not promote the SDCs synthesis in the whole hypocotyl as gene expression was downregulated after infection. Enhanced S fertilization mostly alleviated the repressive fungal effect but did not reverse it. Upregulation of glutathione (GSH)-associated genes in bulk hypocotyls but not in vascular bundles indicated a global antioxidative role of GSH. To finally assign the contribution of S metabolism-associated genes to high S(0) accumulations exclusively found in the resistant tomato line, a spatial gene expression approach was applied. Laser microdissection of infected vascular bundles revealed a switch toward transcription of genes connected with cysteine (Cys) synthesis. The upregulation of LeOASTLp1 suggests a role for Cys as key precursor for local S accumulations (possibly S(0) ) in the vascular bundles of the V. dahliae-resistant tomato line.

A roadmap of cell-type specific gene expression during sequential stages of the arbuscular mycorrhiza symbiosis.

BACKGROUND: About 80% of today's land plants are able to establish an arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis with Glomeromycota fungi to improve their access to nutrients and water in the soil. On the molecular level, the development of AM symbioses is only partly understood, due to the asynchronous development of the microsymbionts in the host roots. Although many genes specifically activated during fungal colonization have been identified, genome-wide information on the exact place and time point of their activation remains limited. RESULTS: In this study, we relied on a combination of laser-microdissection and the use of Medicago GeneChips to perform a genome-wide analysis of transcription patterns in defined cell-types of Medicago truncatula roots mycorrhized with Glomus intraradices. To cover major stages of AM development, we harvested cells at 5-6 and at 21 days post inoculation (dpi). Early developmental stages of the AM symbiosis were analysed by monitoring gene expression in appressorial and non-appressorial areas from roots harbouring infection units at 5-6 dpi. Here, the use of laser-microdissection for the first time enabled the targeted harvest of those sites, where fungal hyphae first penetrate the root. Circumventing contamination with developing arbuscules, we were able to specifically detect gene expression related to early infection events. To cover the late stages of AM formation, we studied arbusculated cells, cortical cells colonized by intraradical hyphae, and epidermal cells from mature mycorrhizal roots at 21 dpi. Taken together, the cell-specific expression patterns of 18014 genes were revealed, including 1392 genes whose transcription was influenced by mycorrhizal colonization at different stages, namely the pre-contact phase, the infection of roots via fungal appressoria, the subsequent colonization of the cortex by fungal hyphae, and finally the formation of arbuscules. Our cellular expression patterns identified distinct groups of AM-activated genes governing the sequential reprogramming of host roots towards an accommodation of microsymbionts, including 42 AM-activated transcription factor genes. CONCLUSIONS: Our genome-wide analysis provides novel information on the cell-specific activity of AM-activated genes during both early and late stages of AM development, together revealing the road map of fine-tuned adjustments of transcript accumulation within root tissues during AM fungal colonization.

Transcriptional responses toward diffusible signals from symbiotic microbes reveal MtNFP- and MtDMI3-dependent reprogramming of host gene expression by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal lipochitooligosaccharides.

The formation of root nodules and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) roots is controlled by a common signaling pathway including the calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase Doesn't Make Infection3 (DMI3). While nodule initiation by lipochitooligosaccharide (LCO) Nod factors is well characterized, diffusible AM fungal signals were only recently identified as sulfated and nonsulfated LCOs. Irrespective of different outcomes, the perception of symbiotic LCOs in Medicago truncatula is mediated by the LysM receptor kinase M. truncatula Nod factor perception (MtNFP). To shed light on transcriptional responses toward symbiotic LCOs and their dependence on MtNFP and Ca(2+) signaling, we performed genome-wide expression studies of wild-type, Nod-factor-perception mutant1, and dmi3 mutant roots challenged with Myc- and Nod-LCOs. We show that Myc-LCOs lead to transient, quick responses in the wild type, whereas Nod-LCOs require prolonged incubation for maximal expression activation. While Nod-LCOs are most efficient for an induction of persistent transcriptional changes, sulfated Myc-LCOs are less active, and nonsulfated Myc-LCOs display the lowest capacity to activate and sustain expression. Although all symbiotic LCOs up-regulated a common set of genes, discrete subsets were induced by individual LCOs, suggesting common and specific functions for these in presymbiotic signaling. Surprisingly, even sulfated fungal Myc-LCOs and Sinorhizobium meliloti Nod-LCOs, having very similar structures, each elicited discrete subsets of genes, while a mixture of both Myc-LCOs activated responses deviating from those induced by single treatments. Focusing on the precontact phase, we identified signaling-related and transcription factor genes specifically up-regulated by Myc-LCOs. Comparative gene expression studies in symbiotic mutants demonstrated that transcriptional reprogramming by AM fungal LCOs strictly depends on MtNFP and largely requires MtDMI3.

Laser microdissection unravels cell-type-specific transcription in arbuscular mycorrhizal roots, including CAAT-box transcription factor gene expression correlating with fungal contact and spread.

Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are the most widespread symbioses on Earth, promoting nutrient supply of most terrestrial plant species. To unravel gene expression in defined stages of Medicago truncatula root colonization by AM fungi, we here combined genome-wide transcriptome profiling based on whole mycorrhizal roots with real-time reverse transcription-PCR experiments that relied on characteristic cell types obtained via laser microdissection. Our genome-wide approach delivered a core set of 512 genes significantly activated by the two mycorrhizal fungi Glomus intraradices and Glomus mossae. Focusing on 62 of these genes being related to membrane transport, signaling, and transcriptional regulation, we distinguished whether they are activated in arbuscule-containing or the neighboring cortical cells harboring fungal hyphae. In addition, cortical cells from nonmycorrhizal roots served as a reference for gene expression under noncolonized conditions. Our analysis identified 25 novel arbuscule-specific genes and 37 genes expressed both in the arbuscule-containing and the adjacent cortical cells colonized by fungal hyphae. Among the AM-induced genes specifying transcriptional regulators were two members encoding CAAT-box binding transcription factors (CBFs), designated MtCbf1 and MtCbf2. Promoter analyses demonstrated that both genes were already activated by the first physical contact between the symbionts. Subsequently, and corresponding to our cell-type expression patterns, they were progressively up-regulated in those cortical areas colonized by fungal hyphae, including the arbuscule-containing cells. The encoded CBFs thus represent excellent candidates for regulators that mediate a sequential reprogramming of root tissues during the establishment of an AM symbiosis.