[Pharmacist´s contribution on antimicrobial stewardship program: ambispective cohort study]. / Contribución del químico farmacéutico en los programas de gerenciamiento de antimicrobianos: estudio de cohortes ambispectivo.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial stewardship program (AMSP) promotes the rational use of the antimicrobial, ensuring that each patient receives the correct antibiotic, by the correct time and at the correct dose. AIM: To establish the association of the results of an AMSP led by a pharmaceutical chemist, in terms of antibiotic consumption, duration of treatment and costs in a tertiary healthcare setting. METHOD: Ambispective cohort study. In the exposed cohort, in the environment of a AMSP, a pharmacist with training in infectious diseases evaluated and intervened the indication, dosage, duration of treatment and bacterial spectrum of the antimicrobial. The no-exposed cohort corresponded to a retrospective population that was similar (paired) to the exposed cohort, but that did not receive an evaluation of its antimicrobial therapy. RESULT: 258 patients were identified in the exposed cohort and 247 in the cohort not exposed to the AMSP. Decrease in the consumption of antibiotics was observed (119,831 vs 137,678 DDD/100 patients-day, p < 0.001) and a decrease in 34.1% of the costs associated with antibiotic therapy of the exposed cohort, in comparison with the cohort not exposed to the AMSP. CONCLUSION: AMSP led by a pharmacist have better outcomes in terms of consumption and lower costs associated with antibiotic therapy.

Clinical outcome of patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia treated with corticosteroids and colchicine in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: To date, there is no specific antiviral therapy for severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that causes Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19). Since there is no specific therapy against SARS-CoV2, current efforts aim to prevent contagion through public health measures and develop a protective vaccine. While waiting for the latter, it is necessary to evaluate the drugs that at least, in initial studies, suggested some degree of utility in the management of Covid-19 or its complications. The main objective of the study was to describe the clinical manifestations and outcomes of patients with severe Covid-19 Pneumonia treated with corticosteroids and colchicine. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross sectional study of 301 adult patients with Covid-19 Pneumonia confirmed by Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction for SARS-CoV2 (RT-PCR SARS-CoV2), Berlin protocol, who required hospitalization in three hospitals in Antioquia, Colombia. Patients were treated according to the institutional protocol (from March 20, 2020 to June 30, 2020) with corticosteroid if the patient required supplemental oxygen. From July 1, 2020, the management protocol changed with the addition of colchicine to all patients admitted to the institutions. The treatment was supervised and monitored by the same specialist in Infectology of the institutions. We describe the clinical manifestations and outcomes of the patients who received these treatments. The information of the patients was analyzed according to the outcome of interest (alive/dead) with univariate, bivariate, and multivariate measures to adjust the variables that presented statistical association. RESULTS: All patients had pneumonia documented by chest computed tomography with ground glass images and presented an alveolar pressure/inspired oxygen fraction (PaFi) less than 300. Three hundred one patients were included, 240 (79.7%) received corticosteroids, within these 145 (48.2%) received colchicine also, and the remaining 61 (20.3%) patients did not receive corticosterioids or colchicine. Mortality in the group that received colchicine was lower compared to the group that did not receive it (9.6 vs 14.6%, p-value = 0.179). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with corticosteroids and colchicine for managing patients with severe Covid-19 Pneumonia was associated with low mortality at the hospital level. Randomized, placebo-controlled studies are required to evaluate the effect of corticosteroids and colchicine on complications or death from Covid-19.

Contribución del químico farmacéutico en los programas de gerenciamiento de antimicrobianos: estudio de cohortes ambispectivo / Pharmacist´s contribution on antimicrobial stewardship program: ambispective cohort study

INTRODUCCIÓN: El programa de gerenciamiento de antimicrobianos (PGAn) promueve el uso racional de los antimicrobianos, garantizando que cada paciente reciba el fármaco correcto, por el tiempo correcto, por la vía y a la dosis correcta. OBJETIVO: Establecer la asociación de los resultados de un PGAn liderado por un químico farmacéutico, en términos de consumo de antimicrobianos, duración del tratamiento y costos, en una institución prestadora de salud de alta complejidad. MATERIALES Y MÉTODO: Estudio de cohortes ambispectivo. En la cohorte expuesta, (entorno de un PGAn), un químico farmacéutico con entrenamiento en enfermedades infecciosas evaluó e intervino la indicación, dosis, duración del tratamiento y espectro bacteriano del antimicrobiano. La cohorte no expuesta fue una población retrospectiva similar (pareada) a la cohorte expuesta, pero sin la evaluación de su terapia antimicrobiana. RESULTADOS: Se identificaron 258 pacientes en la cohorte expuesta y 247 en la cohorte no expuesta al PGAn. Se observó una disminución en el consumo de antimicrobianos (119.831 vs 137.678 DDD/100 pacientes-día, p < 0,001) y una disminución de 34,1% en los costos asociados a la antibioticoterapia de la cohorte expuesta, en comparación con la cohorte no expuesta al PGAn. CONCLUSIÓN: El PGAn liderado por un químico farmacéutico se asocia a mejores resultados en términos de consumo y menores costos de la terapia antimicrobiana.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial stewardship program (AMSP) promotes the rational use of the antimicrobial, ensuring that each patient receives the correct antibiotic, by the correct time and at the correct dose. AIM: To establish the association of the results of an AMSP led by a pharmaceutical chemist, in terms of antibiotic consumption, duration of treatment and costs in a tertiary healthcare setting. METHOD: Ambispective cohort study. In the exposed cohort, in the environment of a AMSP, a pharmacist with training in infectious diseases evaluated and intervened the indication, dosage, duration of treatment and bacterial spectrum of the antimicrobial. The no-exposed cohort corresponded to a retrospective population that was similar (paired) to the exposed cohort, but that did not receive an evaluation of its antimicrobial therapy. RESULT: 258 patients were identified in the exposed cohort and 247 in the cohort not exposed to the AMSP. Decrease in the consumption of antibiotics was observed (119,831 vs 137,678 DDD/100 patients-day, p < 0.001) and a decrease in 34.1% of the costs associated with antibiotic therapy of the exposed cohort, in comparison with the cohort not exposed to the AMSP. CONCLUSION: AMSP led by a pharmacist have better outcomes in terms of consumption and lower costs associated with antibiotic therapy.

Dexamethasone vs methylprednisolone high dose for Covid-19 pneumonia.

BACKGROUND: There is no effective therapy for the severe acute respiratory syndrome by coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) responsible for the Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19). To date, dexamethasone has shown a decrease in mortality in patients who require oxygen, especially those with invasive mechanical ventilation. However, it is unknown if another corticosteroid can be used, the optimal dose and its duration, to achieve a better clinical outcome. The objective of the study was to compare the differences in clinical outcome and laboratory results in hospitalized patients with severe SARS-CoV2 Pneumonia treated with dexamethasone at 6 mg doses versus patients treated with high-dose methylprednisolone. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ambispective cohort study with survival analysis of 216 patients diagnosed with severe Covid-19 pneumonia confirmed by polymerase chain reaction for SARS-CoV2 by Berlin protocol, who were hospitalized in a high-complexity clinic in Medellín, Colombia. The patients should also have supplementary oxygen and radiological confirmation of Pneumonia by chest tomography. Sample size was not calculated since the total population that met the inclusion criteria was evaluated. 111 patients were treated with the institutional protocol with intravenous dexamethasone 6 mg QD for seven to 10 days if they required oxygen. Since September 15, 2020, the hospitalization protocol of the clinic was modified by the Infectious Diseases and Pulmonology service, recommending a high dose of methylprednisolone of 250 to 500 mg every day for three days with a subsequent change to oral prednisone 50 mg every day for 14 days. The protocol was not applied in the intensive care unit, where dexamethasone continued to be administered. The clinical outcome and differences in laboratory results of the patients who received dexamethasone vs. the prospective cohort that received methylprednisolone from September 15 to October 31, 2020, were evaluated. Follow-up was carried out by outpatient consultation one month after discharge or by telephone, inquiring about readmission or living-dead status. RESULTS: 216 patients had Covid-19 pneumonia documented by ground-glass imaging and alveolar pressure / inspired oxygen fraction (PaFi) less than 300. 111 patients received dexamethasone (DXM) and 105 received methylprednisolone (MTP). Patients in the DXM group evolved to severe ARDS in a higher proportion (26.1% vs 17.1% than the MTP group). Upon completion 4 days of treatment with parenteral corticosteroid, laboratory markers of severity decreased significantly in the group that received MTP, CRP 2.85 (2.3-3.8) vs 7.2 (5.4-9.8), (p-value < 0.0001), D-dimer 691 (612-847) vs 1083 (740-1565) (p-value = 0.04) and DHL 273 (244-289) vs 355 (270.6-422) (p-value = 0.01). After starting the corticosteroid, transfer to the intensive care unit (4.8% vs. 14.4%) and mortality (9,5% vs. 17.1%) was lower in the group that received MTP. Recovery time was shorter in patients treated with MTP, three days (3-4) vs. DXM 6 days (5-8) (p-value < 0.0001). At 30-day follow-up, 88 (92.6%) were alive in MTP vs 58 (63.1%) of those who received dexamethasone. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, the treatment of severe Covid-19 Pneumonia with high-dose methylprednisolone for three days followed by oral prednisone for 14 days, compared with 6 mg dexamethasone for 7 to 10 days, statistically significantly decreased the recovery time, the need for transfer to intensive care and the severity markers C-reactive protein (CRP), D-dimer and LDH. Randomized controlled studies with methylprednisolone are required to corroborate its effect, and studies in a population hospitalized in intensive care wards.

Intervenciones farmacéuticas y desenlaces clínicos en un programa de gerenciamiento de antimicrobianos / Pharmaceutical interventions and clinical outcomes in an antimicrobial stewardship program

Resumen Introducción: La participación del farmacéutico en el programa de gerenciamiento de antimicrobianos (PGAn) se ha asociado con mejores resultados. Objetivos: Describir las intervenciones farmacéuticas y desenlaces clínicos de un PGAn centrado en antimicrobianos de amplio espectro, en pacientes hospitalizados en una institución de alta complejidad. Método: Estudio observacional, prospectivo, en pacientes ingresados a una clínica de alta complejidad entre agosto de 2016 y septiembre de 2017. En el entorno de un PGAn, un farmacéutico con entrenamiento en enfermedades infecciosas evaluó e intervino la antibioticoterapia, en conjunto con el médico infectólogo, quien realizó la modificación de la antibioticoterapia pertinente. Adicionalmente, se documentó el desenlace clínico. Resultados: Se incluyeron 258 pacientes. El 16,1% de los antimicrobianos se valoró como no indicado. Se realizaron 126 intervenciones farmacéuticas con 82,5% de aceptación. El desenlace principal fue la curación clínica y/o microbiológica de la patología infecciosa. Conclusión: El problema asociado al antimicrobiano con mayor frecuencia en la población de estudio fue el espectro antimicrobiano con respecto a la sensibilidad del microorganismo. Siendo consecuentes, el de-escalamiento fue la intervención farmacéutica con mayor prevalencia. Se alcanzó un porcentaje de aceptación similar a otros estudios, de las intervenciones realizadas por el farmacéutico en el entorno del PGAn. La curación clínica y/o microbiológica fue la principal causa de egreso hospitalario.

Abstract Background: The pharmacist's participation in the antimicrobial stewardship program (AMSP) has been associated with better outcomes. Aims: To describe the pharmaceutical interventions and clinical outcomes of a PGA focused on broad-spectrum antibiotics in hospitalized patients in a tertiary healthcare setting. Method: Prospective observational study in patients admitted to a tertiary healthcare setting between August-2016 and September-2017. In the context of a AMSP, a pharmacist training in infectious diseases evaluated and intervened antibiotic therapy, with the infectious disease specialist, who performed relevant modification of the antibiotic therapy. In addition, the clinical outcome was evaluated and documented. Results: 258 patients were included. 16.1% of antibiotics were assessed as not indicated. A total of 126 pharmaceutical interventions were performed with 82.5% acceptance. The main outcome was the clinical and/or microbiological cure of infection. Conclusion: The problem associated with the antibiotic most frequently in the study population was the antimicrobial spectrum. Being consistent, de-escalation was the pharmaceutical intervention with the highest prevalence. A high percentage of acceptance of the interventions performed by the pharmacist in the environment of the PGAn was considered. Clinical and/or microbiological cure was the main cause of hospital discharge.

[Pharmaceutical interventions and clinical outcomes in an antimicrobial stewardship program]. / Intervenciones farmacéuticas y desenlaces clínicos en un programa de gerenciamiento de antimicrobianos.

BACKGROUND: The pharmacist's participation in the antimicrobial stewardship program (AMSP) has been associated with better outcomes. AIMS: To describe the pharmaceutical interventions and clinical outcomes of a PGA focused on broad-spectrum antibiotics in hospitalized patients in a tertiary healthcare setting. METHOD: Prospective observational study in patients admitted to a tertiary healthcare setting between August-2016 and September-2017. In the context of a AMSP, a pharmacist training in infectious diseases evaluated and intervened antibiotic therapy, with the infectious disease specialist, who performed relevant modification of the antibiotic therapy. In addition, the clinical outcome was evaluated and documented. RESULTS: 258 patients were included. 16.1% of antibiotics were assessed as not indicated. A total of 126 pharmaceutical interventions were performed with 82.5% acceptance. The main outcome was the clinical and/or microbiological cure of infection. CONCLUSION: The problem associated with the antibiotic most frequently in the study population was the antimicrobial spectrum. Being consistent, de-escalation was the pharmaceutical intervention with the highest prevalence. A high percentage of acceptance of the interventions performed by the pharmacist in the environment of the PGAn was considered. Clinical and/or microbiological cure was the main cause of hospital discharge.

[Evolutionary interactions as a possible mechanism of drug interactions: an approach to the control of antibiotic-resistant bacteria]. / Interacciones evolutivas como un posible mecanismo de interacción medicamentosa: una aproximación para el control de la resistencia bacteriana.

In the 21st century, the world is facing a post-antibiotic era, in which the appearance of infections with a minor or no therapeutic alternative is common. In this context, it is essential to implement measures that optimize the available therapeutic tool, thus generating new strategies that strengthen the fight against growing bacterial resistance. The evolutionary interactions suggest that the development of sensitivity or resistance of a microorganism to an antimicrobial will have an inverse effect (collateral sensitivity) or similar (cross resistance) in a second antimicrobial that is involved in this system. The evolutionary interactions are considered as a new mechanism of drug interaction, and additional, it establishes the collateral sensitivity as a therapeutic strategy to combat bacterial resistance, which could be integrated and evaluated in the future as a new strategy in the antimicrobial stewardship programs.

Interacciones evolutivas como un posible mecanismo de interacción medicamentosa: una aproximación para el control de la resistencia bacteriana / Evolutionary interactions as a possible mechanism of drug interactions: an approach to the control of antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Resumen En el siglo XXI, la humanidad se encuentra frente a una era post-antibiótica, en la cual es común la aparición de infecciones con una menor o nula alternativa terapéutica. En este contexto, se hace indispensable implementar medidas que optimicen el arsenal terapéutico disponible, generando nuevas estrategias para contrarrestar la creciente resistencia bacteriana y la era post-antibiótica. Las interacciones evolutivas plantean que el desarrollo de susceptibilidad o resistencia de un microorganismo a un antimicrobiano tendrá un efecto inverso (susceptibilidad colateral) o similar (resistencia cruzada) en un segundo antimicrobiano incorporado en este sistema. Las interacciones evolutivas se plantean como un nuevo mecanismo de interacción medicamentosa, al tiempo que se identifica a la susceptibilidad colateral como una estrategia terapéutica para combatir la resistencia bacteriana, que se podría integrar y evaluar en un futuro como una nueva estrategia en los programas de gerenciamiento de antimicrobianos.

In the 21st century, the world is facing a post-antibiotic era, in which the appearance of infections with a minor or no therapeutic alternative is common. In this context, it is essential to implement measures that optimize the available therapeutic tool, thus generating new strategies that strengthen the fight against growing bacterial resistance. The evolutionary interactions suggest that the development of sensitivity or resistance of a microorganism to an antimicrobial will have an inverse effect (collateral sensitivity) or similar (cross resistance) in a second antimicrobial that is involved in this system. The evolutionary interactions are considered as a new mechanism of drug interaction, and additional, it establishes the collateral sensitivity as a therapeutic strategy to combat bacterial resistance, which could be integrated and evaluated in the future as a new strategy in the antimicrobial stewardship programs.

Relevancia clínica de la interacción de la warfarina y del acetaminofén: estudio de cohortes retrospective / Clinical relevance of the interaction of warfarin and acetaminophen: retrospective cohort study

Resumen Objetivo: Evaluar el uso concomitante de la warfarina y el acetaminofén en una población ambulatoria de pacientes anticoagulados, como posible factor de riesgo en el aumento de la Relación Normalizada Internacional (INR). Métodos: Estudio de cohortes retrospectivo. Se analizó la información de 1.458 pacientes anticoagulados con la warfarina. El factor de riesgo fue la utilización conjunta de warfarina- acetaminofén; el tiempo de seguimiento fue de 1 mes y como evento final se consideró un incremento del INR igual o mayor a 0,5 unidades. La asociación del factor de riesgo con el evento final se estableció con el riesgo relativo (RR) y el riesgo atribuible poblacional (RAP). Resultados: 63 pacientes cumplieron criterios de inclusión, 21 pacientes expuestos y 42 pacientes no expuestos. En los individuos expuestos se observó un aumento estadísticamente significativo en el INR al mes siguiente de haber iniciado el tratamiento con el acetaminofén comparado con el momento de ingreso al estudio (mes 1: mediana 3,06 vs. mes 0: mediana 2,63), (valor p = 0,003). En contraste, en los sujetos no expuestos no se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en los valores del INR (mes 0: mediana 2,63 vs. mes 1: mediana 2,75), (valor p = 0,115). El uso de la warfarina y el acetaminofén representó un RR de 2,5 veces mayor de incrementar el INR mayor o igual de 0,5 unidades. Conclusión: El uso concomitante de la warfarina y el acetaminofén está asociado a un aumento del INR igual o mayor de 0,5 unidades, lo cual podría generar un mayor efecto anticoagulante y, por tanto, un mayor riesgo potencial de sangrado.

Abstract Motivation: To assess concomitant use of warfarin and acetaminophen in an outpatient population of patients receiving blood-thinning drugs as a possible risk factor for the increase of International Normalised Ratio (INR). Methods: Retrospective cohort study. The information pertaining 1,458 patients receiving blood-thinning drugs with warfarin was analysed. The risk factor was the joint intake of warfarin and acetaminophen; follow-up time was 1 month and the final event considered was a INR increase of or higher than 0.5 units. The association of the risk factor with the final event was establish with the Relative Risk (RR) and the Population Attributable Risk (PAR). Results: 63 patients met the inclusion criteria, of whom 21 were exposed patients and 42 were unexposed patients. In the exposed patients a statistically significant increase of INR on the month following the onset of treatment with acetaminophen was observed, compared to the baseline values (month 1: median 3.06 vs. month 0: median 2.63), (p = 0.003). In contrast, no statistically significant differences of INR values were observed in unexposed individuals (month 0: median 2.63 vs. month 1: median 2.75) (p = 0.115). The combination of warfarin and acetaminophen represented a RR 2.5 times higher to increase INR greater than or equal to 0.5 units. Conclusion: Concomitant use of warfarin and acetaminophen is associated to an increase of INR equal to or greater than 0.5 units, which could generate a higher blood-thinning effect and, thus, cause a potentially higher risk of bleeding.

[Antibibiotic resistance by nosocomial infections' causal agents]. / Resistencia a los antimicrobianos de agentes causales de las principales infecciones nosocomiales.

BACKGROUND: The antibibiotic resistance by nosocomial infections (NI) causal agents constitutes a seriously global problematic that involves the Mexican Institute of Social Security's Regional General Hospital 1 in Chihuahua, Mexico; although with special features that required to be specified and evaluated, in order to concrete an effective therapy. METHODS: Observational, descriptive and prospective study; by means of active vigilance all along 2014 in order to detect the nosocomial infections, for epidemiologic study, culture and antibiogram to identify its causal agents and antibiotics resistance and sensitivity. RESULTS: Among 13527 hospital discharges, 1079 displayed NI (8 %), standed out: the related on vascular lines, of surgical site, pneumonia and urinal track; they added up two thirds of the total. We carried out culture and antibiogram about 300 of them (27.8 %); identifying 31 bacterian species, mainly seven of those (77.9 %): Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Enterobacter cloacae; showing multiresistance to 34 tested antibiotics, except in seven with low or without resistance at all: vancomycin, teicoplanin, linezolid, quinupristin-dalfopristin, piperacilin-tazobactam, amikacin and carbapenems. CONCLUSIONS: When we contrasted those results with the recommendations in the clinical practice guides, it aroused several contradictions; so they must be taken with reserves and has to be tested in each hospital, by means of cultures and antibiograms in practically every case of nosocomial infection.

Introducción: la resistencia a antimicrobianos por agentes causales de infección nosocomial (IN) constituye un grave problemática global que involucra al HGR 1 del IMSS en Chihuahua, México; si bien con particularidades que requirieron especificarla y evaluarla, a fin de concretar una terapéutica eficaz. Métodos: estudio observacional, descriptivo y prospectivo; se llevó a cabo mediante vigilancia activa durante 2014 para la detección de infecciones nosocomiales, su estudio epidemiológico, cultivo y antibiograma para identificar al agente causal y su resistencia a los antibióticos. Resultados: de 13527 egresos hospitalarios, 1079 presentaron IN (8 por 100 egresos) y de ellas destacaron: de líneas vasculares, quirúrgicas, neumonía y de vías urinarias; sumando dos tercios del total. Se realizó cultivo y antibiograma en 300 de ellas (27.8 %); identificando 31 especies bacterianas, siendo siete las principales (77.9 %): Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus y epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, Klebsiella pneumoniae y Enterobacter cloacae; mostrando multirresistencia a 34 antibióticos probados, excepto en siete con baja o nula resistencia: vancomicina, teicoplanina, linezolid, quinupristina-dalfopristina, piperacilina­tazobactam, amikacina y carbapenémicos. Conclusiones: al contrastar tales resultados ante las recomendaciones de las guías de práctica clínica, surgieron contradicciones; por lo que deben tomarse con reserva y ser probadas en cada hospital, mediante cultivos y antibiogramas en prácticamente todos los casos de infección nosocomial.

[Effect of drug interaction between clopidogrel and omeprazole in hospital readmision of patients by a recurrent acute coronary syndrome: a case-control study]. / Efecto de la interacción clopidogrel-omeprazol en el reingreso hospitalario de pacientes por recidiva de síndrome coronario agudo: estudio de casos y controles.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of drug interaction between omeprazol and clopidogrel in hospital readmission of patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). DESIGN: Case-control study. LOCATION: University Clinic LeonXIII, Medellin, Colombia. PARTICIPANTS: We selected from a prevalent population, between 2009-2010, use of clopidogrel patients on an outpatient basis (less than one year and more than 30days), and hospital stay for ACS or the presence of a previous ACS. MAIN MEASURES: A case-patient was defined as one who had a recurrence of ACS and a patient-control is defined as one that no recurrence of ACS. Both groups used ambulatory prior clopidogrel due to ACS. As defined risk factor the joint use of omeprazole and clopidogrel outpatients. RESULTS: During the study, 1680patients clopidogrel formulated. This group identified 50cases readmitted with ACS and 76controls. No statistically significant association was found between use of clopidogrel-omeprazole and increased risk of hospital readmission for ACS (OR: 1.05; 95%CI: 0.516-2.152; P=.8851). CONCLUSIONS: In this small group of patients with previous SCA, the simultaneous use of clopidogrel with omeprazole does not increase the risk of a readmission by recurrence of this type of coronary event.

Interacción warfarina y acetaminofén Evaluación para establecer su relevancia clínica / Warfarin and acetaminophen interaction Assessment to establish its clinical relevance

Objetivo: realizar una revisión estructurada de la interacción warfarina y acetaminofén, buscando establecer su relevancia clínica y profundizar en el mecanismo de dicha interacción. Método: revisión estructurada en PubMed/Medline, de artículos en inglés y español, buscando los términos warfarin AND (acetaminophen OR paracetamol) en el título o resumen. La búsqueda se complementó con las referencias de artículos valorados como importantes. Los trabajos se agruparon en: relacionados con el aumento de sangrado por la interacción warfarina-acetaminofén, o relacionados con el mecanismo de la interacción. Resultados: se identificaron 45 artículos, de los cuales se incluyeron 15 en la revisión: 11 relacionados con el aumento del riesgo de sangrado por la interacción y cuatro con el mecanismo de la interacción. La gravedad del efecto (aumento de la probabilidad de sangrado) se consideró moderada; mientras que la probabilidad de aparición fue valorada como definida. Además, se identificó una relación entre la dosis de acetaminofén y el riesgo de sangrado. Por su parte, el N-acetil-para-benzoquinona-imina (metabolito del acetaminofén) inhibe enzimas del ciclo de la vitamina K y tiene un efecto sinérgico con el efecto anticoagulante de la warfarina. Conclusiones: la relevancia clínica de la interacción warfarina - acetaminofén es de riesgo alto, debido a que la gravedad del efecto (aumento del riesgo de sangrado) es moderada y su probabilidad de presentación es definida. Por tanto, estos dos medicamentos pueden ser utilizados conjuntamente, pero se debe realizar una estricta monitorización. El metabolito N-acetil-para-benzoquinona-imina es el responsable del aumento del efecto anticoagulante de la warfarina. (Acta Med Colomb 2013; 38: 22-27).

Objective: to make a structured review of the interaction between warfarin and acetaminophen, seeking to establish its clinical relevance and deepen in the mechanism of this interaction. Method: structured review of PubMed/Medline of articles in English and Spanish, looking warfarin and acetaminophen or paracetamol in the title or abstract. The search was complemented with references of articles rated as important. The papers were grouped in: related to increased bleeding due to warfarin-acetaminophen interaction, or related to the mechanism of the interaction. Results: we identified 45 articles, of which 15 were included in the review: 11 related to increased risk of bleeding due to the interaction and 4 with the mechanism of the interaction. The severity of the effect (increased likelihood of bleeding) was considered moderate, whereas the probability of appearance was rated as definite. In addition, we identified a relationship between the dose of acetaminophen and the risk of bleeding. In turn, the N-acetyl-para-benzoquinone-imine (metabolite of acetaminophen) inhibits enzymes of the vitamin K cycle and has a synergistic effect with the anticoagulant effect of warfarin. Conclusions: the clinical relevance of the interaction warfarin-acetaminophen is of high risk due to the fact that the severity of the effect (increased risk of bleeding) is moderate and the probability of its presentation is definite. Therefore, these two drugs can be used together, but a strict monitoring should be conducted. The metabolite N-acetyl-para-benzoquinone-imine is responsible for the increase in the anticoagulant effect of warfarin. (Acta Med Colomb 2013; 38: 22-27).

Relevancia clínica de la interacción clopidogrely omeprazol: revisión sistemática / Clinical relevance of clopidogrel and omeprazole interaction: systematic review

Objetivo: realizar una revisión estructurada de la interacción clopidogrel y omeprazol, establecer su relevancia clínica y generar recomendaciones prácticas respecto al tema. Método: revisión estructurada en PubMed/MedLine de trabajos publicados en los últimos diez años, utilizando como estrategia clopidogrel AND omeprazole. La información se agrupó y complementó acorde con el método utilizado para la cuantificación del efecto y con la determinación de un posible efecto de clase. Resultados: la búsqueda generó 35 artículos, de ellos se incluyeron 18 (cinco valoraron la interacción in-vitro, seis la interacción in-vivo y diez la interacción como un efecto de clase). Siete estudios reportaron pérdida del efecto antiagregante, mientras que tres no encontraron una alteración relevante del mismo. Conclusiones: la evidencia de la relevancia clínica de la interacción clopidogrel y omeprazol no es concluyente. Se recomienda seguir las indicaciones de las agencias regulatorias y, en algunos casos, sustituir omeprazol por pantoprazol.

Objective: to perform a structured review of the clopidogrel and omeprazole interaction, establish its clinical relevance and generate practical recommendations on the subject. Method: a structured review on PubMedLine of studies published in the last ten years, using clopidogrel AND omeprazole as strategy. The information was grouped and complemented according to the method used to quantify the effect and with the determination of a possible class effect. Results: the search generated 35 articles, of which 18 were included (five assessed the in-vitro interaction, six the in-vivo interaction and ten analyzed the interaction as a class effect). Seven studies reported loss of the platelet anti-aggregation effect, while three found no significant alteration of the effect. Conclusions: the evidence of the clinical relevance of clopidogrel and omeprazole interaction is nor conclusive. It is recommended to follow the regulatory agencies indications, and in some cases replace omeprazole for pantoprazole.

Epistemología y medicina / Epistemology and medicine

En una conceptualización totalizadora de la salud enfermedad (que correlacione de manera sistemática sus aspectos biológicos psicológicos, sociales e históricos), resulta muy difícil encontrar alguna cosa del universo que involucre a la humanidad sin relación alguna, directa o indirecta, con aquél proceso vital. Ello ha expandido la medicina hacia un ámbito de conocimientos y práxis sumamente vasto complejo. Considerado tan solo desde la perspectiva científica, luchan entre sí saberes y metodologías de investigación distintos y contrarios, que reclaman por igual su validez y estatuto en las ciencias. Con todo y desde sus orígenes, la medicina alopática ha requerido el concurso y el sustento de la filosofía y en particular de una rama especializada de ella: la epistemología. No obstante, a partir del empirismo de Bacon (s. XVII) y, sobre todo, del positivismo de Comte (s. XIX), ha predominado hasta la actualidad (Piaget) una corriente científica enemiga del pensamiento filosófico, a pesar de que constituye en sí una postura epistemológica siendo también general entre los investigadores biomédicos, existen en la medicina al menos un desprecio contra la filosofía de la ciencia. Sin embargo, es objetivamente imprescindible. En este sentido se inscribe el presente ensayo, mediante la caracterización analítica de las epistemologías prototípicas y su relación con la medicina, a lo largo de la historia