Effect of the addition of cocoa sweatings and time of fermentation on flavor compounds and sensory perception of 100% roasted cocoa liquor.

Fermentation is critical for producing high-quality cocoa, yet its kinetics and resulting chemical and sensory outcomes are poorly understood and thus difficult to manage. Cocoa sweatings (CS), the liquid runoff produced early during fermentation and typically drained off, may beneficially affect fermentation outcome when added back into the fermenting mass. Here, we report how back-addition of CS affects composition and sensory perception of roasted cocoa liquor after 5, 6, and 7 days of fermentation. Cocoa liquor (= 100% chocolate) made from beans fermented for 5 days with the addition of CS were similar in sensory perception to those fermented for 7 days without added CS. Twenty-one flavor compounds showed similar patterns to the sensory results: In the beans fermented with CS, these compounds remained at similar levels after 5, 6, and 7 days of fermentation, while the same compounds significantly changed in the samples fermented conventionally, without CS addition. These results suggest a link between changes in flavor composition and sensory differences in roasted cocoa. Future work is needed to reveal the mechanism of flavor stabilization throughout fermentation resulting from the back-addition of CS. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Roasted cocoa liquor fermented with cocoa sweating (CS) is sensorily similar when fermented for 5 or 7 days and produces cocoa that is sensorily similar to traditionally fermented cocoa in shorter time (5 days vs. 7 days). The addition of CS seems to stabilize 21 flavor compounds throughout fermentation mimicking changes in sensory perception. The back-addition of CS could help standardize cocoa fermentation as indicated by more consistent temperature evolution.

Effectiveness of Dry Cleaning Treatments for Removing Milk Chocolate from Valve/Pipe Assemblies and Pilot-scale Chocolate Processing Equipment.

Dark chocolate produced on equipment used to manufacture milk chocolate can contain milk due to cross-contact. This study evaluated the use of dry cleaning methods for removing milk chocolate residue from a butterfly or ball valve attached to a stainless steel pipe and from pilot-scale equipment used in chocolate manufacture. Milk-free dark chocolate (40 °C) was pumped through a milk chocolate-contaminated valve/pipe assembly after no cleaning, use of a pig purging treatment, or a 40 °C cocoa butter flush. Dark chocolate samples were collected at 7-sec intervals. Treatments investigated for the removal of residual milk chocolate from a conche and a ball mill included no cleaning, a 40 °C cocoa butter rinse, and wet cleaning. After cleaning, three batches of dark chocolate (40 °C) were processed in the ball mill and conche, and each batch was collected. Milk chocolate was processed on a 3-roll refiner, followed by push-through with dark chocolate (∼9 kg) with 0.3 kg samples collected at 5-min intervals. Dark chocolate samples were analyzed for milk concentrations by ELISA. Trials and analyses were completed in triplicate. Dark chocolate push-through alone resulted in milk concentrations ≥4,500 µg/g in samples obtained from the contaminated valve/pipe combinations within the first few seconds of collection, and ≥16.2 kg of dark chocolate was needed to obtain milk concentrations below the ELISA LOQ (2.5 µg/g). A pig purging treatment of the ball valve/pipe assembly resulted in milk concentrations below the ELISA LOQ. A cocoa butter flush of the butterfly valve/pipe decreased initial milk concentrations, but milk was detected until ≥18.7 kg dark chocolate purge. Milk concentrations in first batches of dark chocolate processed in a ball mill and conche without cleaning were ≥17,000 µg/g while the use of a cocoa butter rinse reduced milk levels in dark chocolate by ≥89%. Some dry cleaning treatments were effective at reducing levels of milk in dark chocolate due to cross-contact.

Cocoa and Polyphenol-Rich Cocoa Fractions Fail to Improve Acute Colonic Inflammation in Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Treated Mice.

SCOPE: A study is conducted to determine the anti-inflammatory effects of cocoa and polyphenol-rich cocoa fractions in the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced mouse model of acute colonic inflammation. METHODS AND RESULTS: Male C57BL/6J mice are treated with dietary cocoa powder, an extractable cocoa polyphenol fraction, or a non-extractable cocoa polyphenol fraction for 2 weeks prior to treatment with 2.5% DSS in the drinking water for 7 days to induce colonic inflammation. Cocoa treatment continues during the DSS period. Cocoa and/or cocoa fractions exacerbate DSS-induced weight loss and fail to mitigate DSS-induced colon shortening but do improve splenomegaly. Cocoa/cocoa fraction treatment fails to mitigate DSS-induced mRNA and protein markers of inflammation. Principal component analysis shows overlap between cocoa or cocoa fraction-treated mice and DSS-induced controls, but separation from mice not treated with DSS. CONCLUSION: The results suggest cocoa and cocoa polyphenols may not be useful in mitigating acute colonic inflammation.

What Is Chalky? Investigating Consumer Language and Perception of Fine Particles in Beverages Containing Pea and Potato Starch.

Despite its importance as an undesirable food texture, the phenomenon of chalkiness remains understudied. Chalky sensations presumably arise from fine particulates found in foods, but semantic overlap with other common descriptors of small particles, like gritty or sandy, is unclear. Here, we compare the usage of Chalky with related descriptors, and determine the effect of particle size, concentration, and xanthan content on Chalky ratings in a model beverage. A 23 factorial design with starch particle size (D90 = 33.8 and 64.6 µm), starch concentrations (10 and 20% w/v), and xanthan content (0.075 and 0.15% w/v) was used. Participants' salivary flow rate was also assessed. A multi-sip taste test was performed where naïve consumers (n = 82; 39% men, 60% women; age range = 18-79 years) rated the intensity of Chalky, Powdery, Gritty, Sandy, Mouthdrying, and Residual mouthcoating at 0, 30, and 60 s after each of three consecutive sips. All attribute ratings were highly correlated, with Chalky, Powdery, and Residual Mouthcoating being more closely correlated with each other than Gritty or Sandy. Although Chalky was still reported 60 s after consumption, no evidence of build-up was found with repeated sips. A larger size and higher concentration increased Chalky ratings, with the low-salivary-flow group reporting greater ratings for Chalky relative to the high-flow group. Our results suggest consumer percepts of small particles are overlapping but not entirely redundant. This suggests researchers and product developers should carefully distinguish between these descriptors when trying to understand consumer perception of food products containing fine particles.

Distinct Sensory Hedonic Functions for Sourness in Adults.

Over the last half-century, variable responses to sweetness have repeatedly been shown to fall into a small number of hedonic responses, implying that looking only at group means may can obfuscate meaningfully different response patterns. Comparative data for sourness is quite sparse, especially in adults. While increased liking with higher acid concentration has been reported for some children, in adults, sourness is classically assumed to be aversive, with a monotonic drop in liking with increasing sourness. Here, we test this assumption using a simple model system or experimental beverage in convenience samples of adults from the United States (increasing citric acid in water) and Italy (increasing citric acid in pear juice). Participants rated intensity and liking of sampled stimuli. For both cohorts, we find clear evidence of three distinct patterns of responses: a strong negative group where liking dropped with increased sourness, an intermediate group who showed a more muted drop in liking with more sourness, and a strong positive group where liking increased with more sourness. Strikingly, both cohorts showed similar proportions of response patterns, with ~63-70% in the strong negative group, and 11-12% in the strong positive group, suggesting these proportions may be stable across cultures. Notably, the three groups did not differ by age or gender. These data support the existence of different hedonic response profiles to sour stimuli in adults, once again highlighting the importance of looking at individual differences and potential consumer segments, rather than merely averaging hedonic responses across all individuals within a group.

Orthorexia Nervosa and Healthy Orthorexia in a Physically Active North American Population.

The Teruel Orthorexia Scale (TOS) defines two related but distinct constructs: Orthorexia Nervosa (OrNe), a pathological fixation on a healthy diet, and Healthy Orthorexia (HeOr), an interest in a healthy diet independent of psychopathology. Here, we (a) assessed both types of Orthorexia in a large North American sample using the TOS and (b) explored if engaging in regular physical activity was associated with a greater risk of Orthorexia. A cohort of physically active adults (n = 927; 41% men) completed the TOS, as well as the Rapid Assessment of Physical Activity (RAPA), to broadly assess aerobic physical activity level and participation in strength and/or flexibility training. As expected, scores for HeOr and OrNe differed between participants, with lower scores for Orthorexia Nervosa in our physically active non-clinical sample. Higher HeOr scores were associated with lower BMI, and this was true for both men and women. We also found that measures of Orthorexia were associated with self-reported physical activity: active adults reporting more aerobic physical activity had higher HeOr scores, with the most active men having the highest scores. Notably, adults who reported regular strength training had higher scores for both HeOr and OrNe, with men who strength trained showing higher OrNe scores than women. Here, those who participate in regular strength training are more likely to exhibit orthorexic behaviors, and this effect was more pronounced for men than women. Prior work has validated the TOS in young, primarily female samples of non-English speakers outside the United States: present data from an age-diverse, physically active, gender balanced sample support the use of TOS for measurement of Orthorexia Nervosa and Healthy Orthorexia in English speakers and suggest that more work is needed to assess potential gender differences in these constructs.

Using Herbs/Spices to Enhance the Flavor of Commonly Consumed Foods Reformulated to Be Lower in Overconsumed Dietary Components Is an Acceptable Strategy and Has the Potential to Lower Intake of Saturated Fat and Sodium: A National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Analysis and Blind Tasting.

BACKGROUND: Foods lower in saturated fat, sodium, and added sugars (ie, overconsumed dietary components) must have an acceptable flavor profile to promote intake. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this research was to model the influence of using herbs/spices as flavor-enhancers when reducing overconsumed dietary components in commonly consumed foods and evaluate acceptance of these flavor-enhanced reformulations. DESIGN: Ten leading sources of overconsumed dietary components were identified using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015-2018 dietary data. These foods were reformulated to reduce overconsumed dietary components and herbs/spices were used to preserve acceptability. The influence of consumer adoption of the reformulated foods on intake of overconsumed dietary components was modeled using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data. Consumer acceptability of the reformulated recipes was assessed with blind taste testing. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Dietary data from adults aged 19 years and older (n = 9,812) included in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015-2018 were used to identify foods for reformulation and model the potential influence of reformulation. The blind taste testing included 85 to 107 consumers per panel. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Estimated daily change in total intake of saturated fat, sodium, added sugars, and energy with intake of the reformulated foods instead of the original foods. Consumer ratings of overall liking of the reformulated recipes vs the original recipes were assessed using standard 9-point hedonic scales. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Descriptive statistics with use of survey procedures were used to model the influence of reformulated food adoption. Mixed effect models were used for analysis of the blind tasting data. RESULTS: With intake of the reformulated foods, instead of the original versions, by 25% to 100% of current consumers, estimates suggest lowering of saturated fat (25% consumer adoption to 100% consumer adoption -2.9% to -11.4%, respectively), sodium (-3.2 to -11.5%, respectively), and added sugars (-0.5 to -2.7%, respectively) intake. The overall liking ratings for seven of the 10 reformulated foods were superior or at parity with the original foods. CONCLUSIONS: This proof-of-concept research suggests that using herbs/spices to create flavor-enhanced recipes lower in overconsumed dietary components has the potential to reduce intake and is acceptable to consumers.

Evaluation of public submissions to the USDA for labeling of cell-cultured meat in the United States.

With the rapid advancement of cell-cultured meat processing technologies and regulations, commercialization of cell-cultured meat to market shelves requires the implementation of labeling that informs and protects consumers while ensuring economic competitiveness. In November 2022, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) completed its first pre-market consultation of cell-cultured meat and did not question the safety of these products for human consumption. As of June 2023, commercialization of cell-cultured meat products has become a reality in the United States. To derive potential label terms and gain insight into how different stakeholders refer to these novel products, we analyzed 1,151 comments submitted to the 2021 U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Services (USDA-FSIS) call on the labeling of cell-cultured meat and poultry. Our first aim was to systematically assess the nature of comments with regards to their length, cited references, and supplemental materials. In addition, we aimed to identify the most used terms to refer to these products through text analysis. We also asked how these analyses would vary by affiliation category and economic interest. Using the listed organizations for each comment, we first determined financial ties: 77 (7%) comments came from those with an economic interest, 12 (1%) of the comments did not have an identifiable economic interest, while for the remaining 1,062 (92%) comments economic interest could not be determined. We then grouped comments into affiliation categories. Cell-cultured meat companies and animal welfare non-profits had the highest median word count, whereas comments from the unknown affiliation category had the lowest. We found across all comments the predominantly mentioned potential label terms, in descending order, to be cultured meat, lab-grown meat, cultivated meat, cell-cultured meat, clean meat, and cell-based meat. While all label terms were discussed throughout overall submissions, percentages of comments mentioning each term differed between affiliation categories. Our findings suggest differences in how affiliation categories are discussing cell-cultured meat products for the US market. As a next step, the perception and acceptance of these terms must be evaluated to identify the optimal label term regarding the information and protection provided to consumers while ensuring economic competitiveness.

Texture term usage and hedonic ratings in two age-diverse cohorts of Americans.

This study explores the use of food texture terms by adults in the northeastern United States. The purpose of the study was to compare the effect of food texture on food liking and texture term usage among age groups via two complementary online surveys that differed in the specific task given to participants. Survey 1 gathered common food items associated with 25 texture terms using open-ended questions from 345 participants (45% men, 55% women; age range = 20-79 years); it also collected liking scores for foods with these textures. Next, a new group of participants (n = 349, 46% men, 54% women; age range = 20-79 years) completed Survey 2, which asked them to match up to three texture terms to 32 different foods drawn from Survey 1, using a provided list of 35 texture terms. "Tough," "Chalky," and "Rubbery" had a negative impact on food liking scores while "Tender," "Juicy," and "Crispy" were associated with higher mean food liking scores. "Soft," "Crunchy," "Crispy," "Juicy," and "Greasy" were commonly used texture terms regardless of age. Within those aged 50-79 years, "Smooth," "Tender," "Crunchy," "Soft," "Moist," "Crispy," and "Creamy" were used more often while "Chalky," "Rough," "Mealy," "Foamy/Airy," "Gritty" were used less often. Our results identified commonly used texture terms and revealed differential usage in older and younger adults. These data deepen our understanding of the texture of foods in the modern food environment, highlighting how texture perception may vary with age.

Roasting and Cacao Origin Affect the Formation of Volatile Organic Sulfur Compounds in 100% Chocolate.

Chocolate is a highly appreciated food that develops its characteristic flavors in large part during the roasting of cacao beans. Many functional classes have been noted for their importance to chocolate flavor, including volatile organic sulfur compounds (VSCs). Despite this, the effect of roasting on the concentration of VSCs has never been thoroughly assessed. Here, we studied the effects of roasting temperature, time, and cacao origin on the formation of VSCs. Twenty-seven 100% chocolate samples made from cacao from three different origins and roasted according to an I-optimal experimental design were analyzed by comprehensive gas chromatography with sulfur-selective detection (GCxGC-SCD). For two compounds, dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide, the effects of roasting time, roasting temperature, and cacao origin were modelled using response surface methodology and semi-quantified relative concentration. Overall, roasting increased the number of sulfur-containing volatiles present in chocolate, with a total of 28 detected, far more than previously thought. Increased roasting time and especially roasting temperature were found to significantly increase the concentration of VSCs (p < 0.05), while cacao origin effects were only seen for dimethyl disulfide (p < 0.05). The identity of most VSCs remains tentative, and more research is needed to unravel the impact of these volatiles on flavor perception in chocolate.

Effect of processing on the anti-inflammatory efficacy of cocoa in a high fat diet-induced mouse model of obesity.

Obesity causes inflammation which may lead to development of co-morbidities like cardiovascular diseases. Cocoa is a popular food ingredient that has been shown to mitigate obesity and inflammation in preclinical models. Cocoa typically undergoes fermentation and roasting prior to consumption, which can affect the polyphenol content in cocoa. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of fermentation and roasting protocols on the ability of cocoa to mitigate obesity, gut barrier dysfunction, and chronic inflammation in high fat (HF)-fed, obese C57BL/6J mice. We found that treatment of mice with 80 mg/g dietary cocoa powder for 8 weeks reduced rate of body weight gain in both male and female mice (46-57%), regardless of fermentation and roasting protocol. Colonic length was increased (11-24%) and gut permeability was reduced (48-79%) by cocoa supplementation. Analysis of the cecal microbiome showed that cocoa, regardless of fermentation and roasting protocol, reduced the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes. Multivariate statistical analysis of markers of inflammation and body weight data showed sex differences in the effect of both the HF diet as well as cocoa supplementation. Based on this data there was strong protective efficacy from cocoa supplementation especially for the more processed cocoa samples. Overall, this study shows that anti-obesity and anti-inflammatory efficacy of cocoa is resilient to changes in polyphenol content and composition induced by fermentation or roasting. Further, this study shows that although cocoa has beneficial effects in both males and females, there are significant sex differences.

Salivary α-amylase activity and flow rate explain differences in temporal flavor perception in a chewing gum matrix comprising starch-limonene inclusion complexes.

Starch-guest inclusion complexes (ICs) are a novel, clean-label flavor encapsulation system with the potential to improve stability of aroma volatiles. While amylase has been shown to modulate guest release in vitro, release by sensory perception has not been evaluated. Here, Temporal Check-All-That-Apply (TCATA) and CATA were used to compare flavor perception of starch-limonene ICs to uncomplexed limonene, and the differences in perception were explored as a function of participant salivary α-amylase activity (sAA) and salivary flow rate (sFR). High sFR levels decreased limonene perception while high sAA increased limonene perception, highlighting the potential influence of these physiological factors on flavor perception of foods. Temporal flavor perception of a chewing gum containing starch-limonene ICs and a second chewing gum containing uncomplexed limonene and corn starch (CTL) was evaluated by 99 untrained consumers who assessed taste, texture, and aroma attributes over 17 min by TCATA and CATA. In addition, participants were segmented into three clusters based on their sAA and sFR, and cluster TCATA curves for each sample and attribute were statistically compared. Overall, participants rated Citrus, Sour and Bitter (p < 0.05) significantly higher for the IC sample and rated Sweet higher for the CTL. For Citrus, Sour, and Bitter, significant differences were observed between the three clusters for the IC chewing gum, while the CTL gum showed no significant differences for these three attributes. We demonstrate that flavor perception of starch-guest ICs varies with participants' salivary α-amylase activity and flow rate. Additionally, TCATA and CATA were found to be well suited to characterize flavor release systems over a long period of time as multiple flavor percepts can be simultaneously tracked.

Optimizing consumer acceptability of 100% chocolate through roasting treatments and effects on bitterness and other important sensory characteristics.

Chocolate is a highly appreciated food around the world which is rich in polyphenols but usually sweetened to mask inherent bitterness and astringency. Here we aim to determine how roast time and temperature in cacao roasting affect bitterness intensity and consumer liking of chocolate. We have also determined the relationship between consumer liking and perceived bitterness, astringency, sourness, sweetness, and cocoa intensity. Unroasted cacao from three different origins was roasted according to a designed experiment into a total of 27 treatments which were evaluated for overall liking and sensory attribute intensities by 145 chocolate consumers. We demonstrate that bitterness, sourness and astringency of 100% chocolate can be reduced through optimizing roasting temperature and time. Reduction of bitterness, sourness and astringency were significantly correlated with increased acceptability of the unsweetened chocolate samples. Aside from roasting, cacao origin including base levels of bitterness, astringency, and sourness should also be considered when optimizing consumer acceptability. Perceived cocoa flavor intensity, being highly positively correlated to liking, is likely to also be an important consideration for raw material selection. As for optimal roast profiles, for the cacao origins in our study, more intense roasting conditions such as 20 min at 171 °C, 80 min at 135 °C, and 54 min at 151 °C, all led to the most acceptable unsweetened chocolate. Conversely, for the purposes of optimizing consumer acceptability, our data do not support the use of raw or lightly roasted cacao, such as 0 min at 24 °C, 11 min at 105 °C, or 55 min at 64 °C.

Impact of copper-based fungicides on the antioxidant quality of ethanolic hop extracts.

Hops contain a variety of compounds possessing antioxidant capacity including phenolic and polyphenolic compounds as well as α- and ß- acids. These compounds may contribute to the oxidative stability of beer during brewing and storage. Hop plants may be treated with copper-based fungicides (CBFs) which have been shown to increase the total copper content of harvested hop cones; however, copper ions are well known to catalyze the generation of reactive oxygen species production in beer and may negatively impact its oxidative stability. Increased copper content in CBF-treated hops has been previously shown to have deleterious effects on the aroma quality of hops and beer. The impact of CBFs on the antioxidant content and quality of hops has not been previously investigated. In this study, ethanolic extracts of CBF-treated hops are evaluated for their metal content and antioxidant quality in order to determine whether excess copper from CBF treatment negatively impacts their antioxidant capacity.

Influence of Region on Sensory and Chemical Profiles of Pennsylvania Grüner Veltliner Wines.

The influence of cultural and environmental factors on the sensory and chemical profiles of wines has been the subject of research investigation for many years, and an examination of these relationships can help determine whether wine regional trends exist. The present study investigated the chemical and sensory factors that drive regional differences in Pennsylvania Grüner Veltliner wines through a controlled winemaking study across two vintages in 2018 and 2019. Descriptive analysis was used to identify key sensory attributes of Pennsylvania Grüner Veltliner. Intensities of these attributes were evaluated in wines vinified under identical conditions from grapes harvested across nine Pennsylvania vineyards. Chemical profiles of finished wines were examined through volatile, phenolic, and color analyses. Significant sensory differences were found between wine regions, with some trends consistent across both vintages; however, regionality based on compositional analyses was less clear. As the first study to examine Pennsylvania Grüner Veltliner wines sensorially, results revealed sensory characteristics that can be useful for wineries and their tasting room staff in marketing these lesser-known white wines to wine consumers as the variety grows in popularity in the state.

Differences in preferred fat level, sweetener type, and amount of added sugar in chocolate milk in a choice task relate to physical activity and orthorexia.

Fluid dairy milk consumption has decreased over the last 4 decades, and this drop has accelerated with the introduction of many competing beverage alternatives, such as plant-based milks and bottled water. Conversely, flavored milk sales remain strong, but many adults avoid flavored milk because of concerns about added sugar and calories and/or excessive sweetness. Here we used two discrete choice experiments to assess interest for a dark chocolate milk drink in adults, and explored whether there might be a consumer segment who prefers a more bitter, lower sugar chocolate milk. Adults were recruited from the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States for two conjoint analysis studies. In a general population cohort (n = 735), type of sweetener was the most important attribute (24%), followed by milk fat (19%), grams of added sugar (16%), front of pack messaging (15%), package type (12%), carton size (8%), and protein content (6%). Attribute importance was relatively consistent in a second study with a younger, more physically active cohort (n = 1017). Product choices in the active cohort were related to orthorexia and physically activity scores, indicating revealed preferences in a choice task are reflective of personal lifestyle and eating behavior. In both cohorts, three consistent consumer segments were identified and characterized: the calorie conscious, the average consumer, and the natural eaters. These data can help uncover lifestyle differences between adult consumers that impact their food product choices.

Understanding American premium chocolate consumer perception of craft chocolate and desirable product attributes using focus groups and projective mapping.

Craft chocolate is a relatively new and fast-growing segment of the American chocolate market. To understand American premium chocolate consumer perception of craft chocolate and desirable chocolate product attributes, we conducted a mixed-methods study using focus groups and projective mapping. Projective mapping revealed that participants segmented products in terms of quality based upon usage occasion rather than cost or other factors. We found that American premium chocolate consumers use search attributes such as segmentation, price, availability, and packaging as quality determinants. Additionally, they desire credence attributes that convey trust through, for example, the presence or absence of sustainability certifications, or a semblance of meaning. Premium chocolate consumers seek out experience attributes such as utility and/or joy, which are achieved by purchasing a chocolate product as a gift, for its nostalgic purposes, or for desired post-ingestive effects. We propose a Desirable Chocolate Attribute Concept Map to explain our findings.

Individual Differences in Thresholds and Consumer Preferences for Rotundone Added to Red Wine.

Rotundone is an aromatic compound found in the skin of some grapes (e.g., Shiraz, Noiret) that contributes peppery notes to wines made with these varieties. There may be a specific anosmia for rotundone, as some individuals are unable to detect it even at high concentrations, despite otherwise normal olfaction. This may affect perception of and preference for rotundone-containing wines. Here, we report rotundone detection thresholds (orthonasal n = 56; retronasal n = 53) and rejection thresholds (n = 86) in red wine for a convenience sample of non-expert consumers in Pennsylvania. Focus groups were conducted to better understand consumer attitudes and preferences for rotundone. Ortho- and retronasal detection thresholds were nearly identical (140 v. 146 ng/L). Roughly 40% of our sample was anosmic to rotundone, extending evidence for a specific anosmia to a North American cohort. As ortho- and retronasal thresholds were extremely similar, future work on rotundone can rely on orthonasal assessment. In our participants, added rotundone was generally disliked, and in focus groups, the concept of a 'peppery' wine was not appealing. Winemakers need to carefully consider biological and attitudinal segmentation when making and marketing peppery wines. Further work is needed to identify the genetic basis for this anosmia.

The Use of Macro, Micro, and Trace Elemental Profiles to Differentiate Commercial Single Vineyard Pinot noir Wines at a Sub-Regional Level.

The compositional authentication of wine is of great interest, as the geographic origin of the grapes is often associated with quality, uniqueness, and authenticity. Previous elemental fingerprinting studies mainly discriminated wines from different countries or regions within a country. Here, we report the use of element profiles to distinguish commercial Pinot noir wines from five sub-regional appellations or neighborhoods within one American viticultural area (AVA). Fifty-three single cultivar wines were collected over two harvests and analyzed using microwave plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (MP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Of 62 monitored elements that were quantified with fully validated methods, 24 and 32 elements differed significantly across the neighborhoods and vintages, respectively (p < 0.05). Targeted canonical variate analysis (CVA) explained 85%-90% of the variance ratio across the two vintages, indicating persistent and stable elemental fingerprints of wines at a sub-regional level. A sixth, newly founded neighborhood was correctly grouped separately from the others using a Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA), indicating the potential of elemental fingerprints for wine authenticity.