Microphysiological Systems Evaluation: Experience of TEX-VAL Tissue Chip Testing Consortium.

Much has been written and said about the promise and excitement of microphysiological systems, miniature devices that aim to recreate aspects of human physiology on a chip. The rapid explosion of the offerings and persistent publicity placed high expectations on both product manufacturers and regulatory agencies to adopt the data. Inevitably, discussions of where this technology fits in chemical testing paradigms are ongoing. Some end-users became early adopters, whereas others have taken a more cautious approach because of the high cost and uncertainties of their utility. Here, we detail the experience of a public-private collaboration established for testing of diverse microphysiological systems. Collectively, we present a number of considerations on practical aspects of using microphysiological systems in the context of their applications in decision-making. Specifically, future end-users need to be prepared for extensive on-site optimization and have access to a wide range of imaging and other equipment. We reason that cells, related reagents, and the technical skills of the research staff, not the devices themselves, are the most critical determinants of success. Extrapolation from concentration-response effects in microphysiological systems to human blood or oral exposures, difficulties with replicating the whole organ, and long-term functionality remain as critical challenges. Overall, we conclude that it is unlikely that a rodent- or human-equivalent model is achievable through a finite number of microphysiological systems in the near future; therefore, building consensus and promoting the gradual incorporation of these models into tiered approaches for safety assessment and decision-making is the sensible path to wide adoption.

Profiling the ToxCast Library With a Pluripotent Human (H9) Stem Cell Line-Based Biomarker Assay for Developmental Toxicity.

The Stemina devTOX quickPredict platform is a human pluripotent stem cell-based assay that predicts the developmental toxicity potential based on changes in cellular metabolism following chemical exposure [Palmer, J. A., Smith, A. M., Egnash, L. A., Conard, K. R., West, P. R., Burrier, R. E., Donley, E. L. R., and Kirchner, F. R. (2013). Establishment and assessment of a new human embryonic stem cell-based biomarker assay for developmental toxicity screening. Birth Defects Res. B Dev. Reprod. Toxicol. 98, 343-363]. Using this assay, we screened 1065 ToxCast phase I and II chemicals in single-concentration or concentration-response for the targeted biomarker (ratio of ornithine to cystine secreted or consumed from the media). The dataset from the Stemina (STM) assay is annotated in the ToxCast portfolio as STM. Major findings from the analysis of ToxCast_STM dataset include (1) 19% of 1065 chemicals yielded a prediction of developmental toxicity, (2) assay performance reached 79%-82% accuracy with high specificity (> 84%) but modest sensitivity (< 67%) when compared with in vivo animal models of human prenatal developmental toxicity, (3) sensitivity improved as more stringent weights of evidence requirements were applied to the animal studies, and (4) statistical analysis of the most potent chemical hits on specific biochemical targets in ToxCast revealed positive and negative associations with the STM response, providing insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of the targeted endpoint and its biological domain. The results of this study will be useful to improving our ability to predict in vivo developmental toxicants based on in vitro data and in silico models.

The Next Generation Blueprint of Computational Toxicology at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is faced with the challenge of efficiently and credibly evaluating chemical safety often with limited or no available toxicity data. The expanding number of chemicals found in commerce and the environment, coupled with time and resource requirements for traditional toxicity testing and exposure characterization, continue to underscore the need for new approaches. In 2005, EPA charted a new course to address this challenge by embracing computational toxicology (CompTox) and investing in the technologies and capabilities to push the field forward. The return on this investment has been demonstrated through results and applications across a range of human and environmental health problems, as well as initial application to regulatory decision-making within programs such as the EPA's Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program. The CompTox initiative at EPA is more than a decade old. This manuscript presents a blueprint to guide the strategic and operational direction over the next 5 years. The primary goal is to obtain broader acceptance of the CompTox approaches for application to higher tier regulatory decisions, such as chemical assessments. To achieve this goal, the blueprint expands and refines the use of high-throughput and computational modeling approaches to transform the components in chemical risk assessment, while systematically addressing key challenges that have hindered progress. In addition, the blueprint outlines additional investments in cross-cutting efforts to characterize uncertainty and variability, develop software and information technology tools, provide outreach and training, and establish scientific confidence for application to different public health and environmental regulatory decisions.

ATP Binding Cassette Sub-family Member 2 (ABCG2) and Xenobiotic Exposure During Early Mouse Embryonic Stem Cell Differentiation.

BACKGROUND: ATP binding cassette sub-family member 2 (ABCG2) is a well-defined efflux transporter found in a variety of tissues. The role of ABCG2 during early embryonic development, however, is not established. Previous work which compared data from the ToxCast screening program with that from in-house studies suggested an association exists between exposure to xenobiotics that regulate Abcg2 transcription and differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESC), a relationship potentially related to redox homeostasis. METHODS: mESC were grown for up to 9 days. Pharmacological inhibitors were used to assess transporter function with and without xenobiotic exposure. Proliferation and differentiation were evaluated using RedDot1 and quantiative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, respectively. ABCG2 activity was assessed using a Pheophorbide a-based fluorescent assay. Protein expression was measured by capillary-based immunoassay. RESULTS: ABCG2 activity increased in differentiating mESC. Treatment with K0143, an inhibitor of ABCG2, had no effect on proliferation or differentiation. As expected, mitoxantrone and topotecan, two chemotherapeutics, displayed increased toxicity in the presence of K0143. Exposure to K0143 in combination with chemicals predicted by ToxCast to regulate ABCG2 expression did not alter xenobiotic-induced toxicity. Moreover, inhibition of ABCG2 did not shift the toxicity of either tert-Butyl hydroperoxide or paraquat, two oxidative stressors. CONCLUSION: As previously reported, ABCG2 serves a protective role in mESC. The role of ABCG2 in regulating redox status, however, was unclear. The hypothesis that ABCG2 plays a fundamental role during mESC differentiation or that regulation of the receptor by xenobiotics may be associated with altered mESC differentiation could not be supported. Birth Defects Research, 110:35-47, 2018. Published 2017. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Blood-brain barrier development: Systems modeling and predictive toxicology.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) serves as a gateway for passage of drugs, chemicals, nutrients, metabolites, and hormones between vascular and neural compartments in the brain. Here, we review BBB development with regard to the microphysiology of the neurovascular unit (NVU) and the impact of BBB disruption on brain development. Our focus is on modeling these complex systems. Extant in silico models are available as tools to predict the probability of drug/chemical passage across the BBB; in vitro platforms for high-throughput screening and high-content imaging provide novel data streams for profiling chemical-biological interactions; and engineered human cell-based microphysiological systems provide empirical models with which to investigate the dynamics of NVU function. Computational models are needed that bring together kinetic and dynamic aspects of NVU function across gestation and under various physiological and toxicological scenarios. This integration will inform adverse outcome pathways to reduce uncertainty in translating in vitro data and in silico models for use in risk assessments that aim to protect neurodevelopmental health.

Method to assess component contribution to toxicity of complex mixtures: Assessment of puberty acquisition in rats exposed to disinfection byproducts.

A method based on regression modeling was developed to discern the contribution of component chemicals to the toxicity of highly complex, environmentally realistic mixtures of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Chemical disinfection of drinking water forms DBP mixtures. Because of concerns about possible reproductive and developmental toxicity, a whole mixture (WM) of DBPs produced by chlorination of a water concentrate was administered as drinking water to Sprague-Dawley (S-D) rats in a multigenerational study. Age of puberty acquisition, i.e., preputial separation (PPS) and vaginal opening (VO), was examined in male and female offspring, respectively. When compared to controls, a slight, but statistically significant delay in puberty acquisition was observed in females but not in males. WM-induced differences in the age at puberty acquisition were compared to those reported in S-D rats administered either a defined mixture (DM) of nine regulated DBPs or individual DBPs. Regression models were developed using individual animal data on age at PPS or VO from the DM study. Puberty acquisition data reported in the WM and individual DBP studies were then compared with the DM models. The delay in puberty acquisition observed in the WM-treated female rats could not be distinguished from delays predicted by the DM regression model, suggesting that the nine regulated DBPs in the DM might account for much of the delay observed in the WM. This method is applicable to mixtures of other types of chemicals and other endpoints.

A systematic evaluation of the potential effects of trichloroethylene exposure on cardiac development.

The 2011 EPA trichloroethylene (TCE) IRIS assessment, used developmental cardiac defects from a controversial drinking water study in rats (Johnson et al. [51]), along with several other studies/endpoints to derive reference values. An updated literature search of TCE-related developmental cardiac defects was conducted. Study quality, strengths, and limitations were assessed. A putative adverse outcome pathway (AOP) construct was developed to explore key events for the most commonly observed cardiac dysmorphologies, particularly those involved with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of endothelial origin (EndMT); several candidate pathways were identified. A hypothesis-driven weight-of-evidence analysis of epidemiological, toxicological, in vitro, in ovo, and mechanistic/AOP data concluded that TCE has the potential to cause cardiac defects in humans when exposure occurs at sufficient doses during a sensitive window of fetal development. The study by Johnson et al. [51] was reaffirmed as suitable for hazard characterization and reference value derivation, though acknowledging study limitations and uncertainties.

Use of alternative assays to identify and prioritize organophosphorus flame retardants for potential developmental and neurotoxicity.

Due to their toxicity and persistence in the environment, brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are being phased out of commercial use, leading to the increased use of alternative chemicals such as the organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs). There is, however, limited information on the potential health effects of OPFRs. Due to the structural similarity of the OPFRs to organophosphorus insecticides, there is concern regarding developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity. In response, we evaluated a set of OPFRs (triphenyl phosphate [TPHP]), isopropylated phenyl phosphate [IPP], 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate [EHDP], tert-butylated phenyl diphenyl phosphate [BPDP], trimethyl phenyl phosphate [TMPP], isodecyl diphenyl phosphate [IDDP], (tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate [TDCIPP], and tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate [TCEP]) in a battery of cell-based in vitro assays and alternative model organisms and compared the results to those obtained for two classical BFRs (3,3',5,5'-tetrabromobisphenol A [TBBPA] and 2,2'4,4'-brominated diphenyl ether [BDE-47]). The assays used evaluated the effects of chemicals on the differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells, the proliferation and growth of human neural stem cells, rat neuronal growth and network activity, and development of nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans) and zebrafish (Danio rerio). All assays were performed in a concentration-response format, allowing for the determination of the point of departure (POD: the lowest concentration where a chemically-induced response exceeds background noise). The majority of OPFRs (8/9) were active in multiple assays in the range of 1-10 µM, most of which had comparable activity to the BFRs TBBPA and BDE-47. TCEP was negative in all assays. The results indicate that the replacement OPFRs, with the exception of TCEP, showed comparable activity to the two BFRs in the assays tested. Based on these results, more comprehensive studies are warranted to further characterize the potential hazard of some of these OPFR compounds.

Reproductive toxicity of a mixture of regulated drinking-water disinfection by-products in a multigenerational rat bioassay.

BACKGROUND: Trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) are regulated disinfection by-products (DBPs); their joint reproductive toxicity in drinking water is unknown. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to evaluate a drinking water mixture of the four regulated THMs and five regulated HAAs in a multigenerational reproductive toxicity bioassay. METHODS: Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed (parental, F1, and F2 generations) from gestation day 0 of the parental generation to postnatal day (PND) 6 of the F2 generation to a realistically proportioned mixture of THMs and HAAs at 0, 500×, 1,000×, or 2,000× of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's maximum contaminant levels (MCLs). RESULTS: Maternal water consumption was reduced at ≥ 1,000×; body weights were reduced at 2,000×. Prenatal and postnatal survival were unaffected. F1 pup weights were unaffected at birth but reduced at 2,000× on PND6 and at ≥ 1,000× on PND21. Postweaning F1 body weights were reduced at 2,000×, and water consumption was reduced at ≥ 500×. Males at 2,000× had a small but significantly increased incidence of retained nipples and compromised sperm motility. Onset of puberty was delayed at 1,000× and 2,000×. F1 estrous cycles and fertility were unaffected, and F2 litters showed no effects on pup weight or survival. Histologically, P0 (parental) dams had nephropathy and adrenal cortical pathology at 2,000×. CONCLUSIONS: A mixture of regulated DBPs at up to 2,000× the MCLs had no adverse effects on fertility, pregnancy maintenance, prenatal survival, postnatal survival, or birth weights. Delayed puberty at ≥ 1,000× may have been secondary to reduced water consumption. Male nipple retention and compromised sperm motility at 2,000× may have been secondary to reduced body weights.

Species extrapolation of life-stage physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models to investigate the developmental toxicology of ethanol using in vitro to in vivo (IVIVE) methods.

To provide useful alternatives to in vivo animal studies, in vitro assays for dose-response assessments of xenobiotic chemicals must use concentrations in media and target tissues that are within biologically-plausible limits. Determining these concentrations is a complex matter, which can be facilitated by applying physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models in an in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (IVIVE) paradigm. We used ethanol (EtOH), a ubiquitous chemical with defined metrics for in vivo and in vitro embryotoxicity, as a model chemical to evaluate this paradigm. A published series of life-stage PBPK models for rats was extended to mice, yielding simulations that adequately predicted in vivo blood EtOH concentrations (BECs) from oral, intraperitoneal, and intravenous routes in nonpregnant and pregnant adult mice. The models were then extrapolated to nonpregnant and pregnant humans, replicating BEC data within a factor of two. The rodent models were then used to conduct IVIVEs for rodent and whole-embryo culture embryotoxicity data (neural tube closure defects, morphological changes). A second IVIVE was conducted for exposure scenarios in pregnant women during critical windows of susceptibility for developmental toxicity, such as the first 6-to-8 weeks (prerecognition period) or mid-to-late pregnancy period, when EtOH consumption is associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Incorporation of data from human embryonic stem cell studies led to a model-supported linkage of in vitro concentrations with plausible exposure ranges for pregnant women. This effort demonstrates benefits and challenges associated with use of multispecies PBPK models to estimate in vivo tissue concentrations associated with in vitro embryotoxicity studies.

Comprehensive assessment of a chlorinated drinking water concentrate in a rat multigenerational reproductive toxicity study.

Some epidemiological studies report associations between drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and adverse reproductive/developmental effects, e.g., low birth weight, spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, and birth defects. Using a multigenerational rat bioassay, we evaluated an environmentally relevant "whole" mixture of DBPs representative of chlorinated drinking water, including unidentified DBPs as well as realistic proportions of known DBPs at low-toxicity concentrations. Source water from a water utility was concentrated 136-fold, chlorinated, and provided as drinking water to Sprague-Dawley rats. Timed-pregnant females (P0 generation) were exposed during gestation and lactation. Weanlings (F1 generation) continued exposures and were bred to produce an F2 generation. Large sample sizes enhanced statistical power, particularly for pup weight and prenatal loss. No adverse effects were observed for pup weight, prenatal loss, pregnancy rate, gestation length, puberty onset in males, growth, estrous cycles, hormone levels, immunological end points, and most neurobehavioral end points. Significant, albeit slight, effects included delayed puberty for F1 females, reduced caput epidydimal sperm counts in F1 adult males, and increased incidences of thyroid follicular cell hypertrophy in adult females. These results highlight areas for future research, while the largely negative findings, particularly for pup weight and prenatal loss, are notable.

Developmental toxicity evaluations of whole mixtures of disinfection by-products using concentrated drinking water in rats: gestational and lactational effects of sulfate and sodium.

A developmental toxicity bioassay was used in three experiments to evaluate water concentrates for suitability in multigenerational studies. First, chlorinated water was concentrated 135-fold by reverse osmosis; select lost disinfection by-products were spiked back. Concentrate was provided as drinking water to Sprague-Dawley and F344 rats from gestation day 6 to postnatal day 6. Maternal serum levels of luteinizing hormone on gestation day 10 were unaffected by treatment for both strains. Treated dams had increased water consumption, and increased incidences of polyuria, diarrhea, and (in Sprague-Dawley rats) red perinasal staining. Pup weights were reduced. An increased incidence of eye defects was seen in F344 litters. Chemical analysis of the concentrate revealed high sodium (6.6 g/l) and sulfate (10.4 g/l) levels. To confirm that these chemicals caused polyuria and osmotic diarrhea, respectively, Na2SO4 (5-20 g/l) or NaCl (16.5 g/l) was provided to rats in drinking water. Water consumption was increased at 5- and 10-g Na2SO4/l and with NaCl. Pup weights were reduced at 20-g Na2SO4/l. Dose-related incidences and severity of polyuria and diarrhea occurred in Na2SO4-treated rats; perinasal staining was seen at 20 g/l. NaCl caused polyuria and perinasal staining, but not diarrhea. Subsequently, water was concentrated ∼120-fold and sulfate levels were reduced by barium hydroxide before chlorination, yielding lower sodium (≤1.5 g/l) and sulfate (≤2.1 g/l) levels. Treatment resulted in increased water consumption, but pup weight and survival were unaffected. There were no treatment-related clinical findings, indicating that mixtures produced by the second method are suitable for multigenerational testing.

Identification of developmentally toxic drinking water disinfection byproducts and evaluation of data relevant to mode of action.

Reactions between chemicals used to disinfect drinking water and compounds present in source waters produce chemical mixtures containing hundreds of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Although the results have been somewhat inconsistent, some epidemiological studies suggest associations may exist between DBP exposures and adverse developmental outcomes. The potencies of individual DBPs in rodent and rabbit developmental bioassays suggest that no individual DBP can account for the relative risk estimates reported in the positive epidemiologic studies, leading to the hypothesis that these outcomes could result from the toxicity of DBP mixtures. As a first step in a mixtures risk assessment for DBP developmental effects, this paper identifies developmentally toxic DBPs and examines data relevant to the mode of action (MOA) for DBP developmental toxicity. We identified 24 developmentally toxic DBPs and four adverse developmental outcomes associated with human DBP exposures: spontaneous abortion, cardiovascular defects, neural tube defects, and low birth weight infancy. A plausible MOA, involving hormonal disruption of pregnancy, is delineated for spontaneous abortion, which some epidemiologic studies associate with total trihalomethane and bromodichloromethane exposures. The DBP data for the other three outcomes were inadequate to define key MOA steps.

Mouse embryonic stem cell adherent cell differentiation and cytotoxicity (ACDC) assay.

An adherent cell differentiation and cytotoxicity (ACDC) assay was developed using pluripotent J1 mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). Adherent mESCs were used to evaluate chemical-induced effects on both stem cell viability and differentiation using an in-cell western technique after a 9-day culture. DRAQ5/Sapphire700 stains were used to quantify cell number. Myosin heavy chain protein was used as a marker of cardiomyocyte differentiation and was corrected for cell number, thereby separating cytotoxicity and effects on differentiation. Acetic acid, 5-fluorouracil and bromochloroacetic acid were evaluated using the embryonic stem cell test and ACDC assay. Both systems distinguish the relative potencies of these compounds. TaqMan low-density arrays were used to characterize the time course of differentiation and effects of chemical exposure on multiple differentiation gene markers. The ACDC assay is a technique that can be used to evaluate the effects of xenobiotics on mESC differentiation and cell number using a single assay.

Pregnancy loss and eye malformations in offspring of F344 rats following gestational exposure to mixtures of regulated trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids.

Chlorination of drinking water yields hundreds of disinfection by-products (DBPs). Among the DBPs, four trihalomethanes (THMs; chloroform, bromodichloromethane, chlorodibromomethane, bromoform) and five haloacetic acids (HAAs; chloroacetic, dichloroacetic, trichloroacetic, bromoacetic, and dibromoacetic acid) are U.S. EPA regulated. We assessed the combined toxicity of these DBPs. F344 rats were treated with mixtures of the four THMs (THM4), the five HAAs (HAA5), or nine DBPs (DBP9; THM4+HAA5). Mixtures were administered in 10% Alkamuls(®) EL-620 daily by gavage on gestation days 6-20. Litters were examined postnatally. All three mixtures caused pregnancy loss at ≥ 613 µmol/kg/day. In surviving litters, resorption rates were increased in groups receiving HAA5 at 615 µmol/kg/day and DBP9 at 307 µmol/kg/day. HAA5 caused eye malformations (anophthalmia, microphthalmia) at ≥ 308 µmol/kg/day. Thus, both HAAs and THMs contributed to DBP9-induced pregnancy loss. The presence of THMs in the full mixture, however, appeared to reduce the incidence of HAA-induced eye defects.

Concentration, chlorination, and chemical analysis of drinking water for disinfection byproduct mixtures health effects research: U.S. EPA's Four Lab Study.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's "Four Lab Study" involved participation of researchers from four national Laboratories and Centers of the Office of Research and Development along with collaborators from the water industry and academia. The study evaluated toxicological effects of complex disinfection byproduct (DBP) mixtures, with an emphasis on reproductive and developmental effects that have been associated with DBP exposures in some human epidemiologic studies. This paper describes a new procedure for producing chlorinated drinking water concentrate for animal toxicology experiments, comprehensive identification of >100 DBPs, and quantification of 75 priority and regulated DBPs. In the research reported herein, complex mixtures of DBPs were produced by concentrating a natural source water with reverse osmosis membranes, followed by addition of bromide and treatment with chlorine. By concentrating natural organic matter in the source water first and disinfecting with chlorine afterward, DBPs (including volatiles and semivolatiles) were formed and maintained in a water matrix suitable for animal studies. DBP levels in the chlorinated concentrate compared well to those from EPA's Information Collection Rule (ICR) and a nationwide study of priority unregulated DBPs when normalized by total organic carbon (TOC). DBPs were relatively stable over the course of the animal studies (125 days) with multiple chlorination events (every 5-14 days), and a significant portion of total organic halogen was accounted for through a comprehensive identification approach. DBPs quantified included regulated DBPs, priority unregulated DBPs, and additional DBPs targeted by the ICR. Many DBPs are reported for the first time, including previously undetected and unreported haloacids and haloamides. The new concentration procedure not only produced a concentrated drinking water suitable for animal experiments, but also provided a greater TOC concentration factor (136×), enhancing the detection of trace DBPs that are often below detection using conventional approaches.

Research issues underlying the four-lab study: integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research.

Chemical disinfection of drinking water is a major public health triumph of the 20th century, resulting in significant decreases in morbidity and mortality from waterborne diseases. Disinfection by-products (DBP) are chemicals formed by the reaction of oxidizing disinfectants with inorganic and organic materials in the source water. To address potential health concerns that cannot be answered directly by toxicological research on individual DBPs or defined DBP mixtures, scientists residing within the various organizations of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Research and Development (the National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, the National Risk Management Research Laboratory, the National Exposure Research Laboratory, and the National Center for Environmental Assessment) engaged in joint investigation of environmentally realistic complex mixtures of DBP. Research on complex mixtures of DBP is motivated by three factors: (a) DBP exposure is ubiquitous to all segments of the population; (b) some positive epidemiologic studies are suggestive of potential developmental, reproductive, or carcinogenic health effects in humans exposed to DBP; and (c) significant amounts of the material that makes up the total organic halide portion of the DBP have not been identified. The goal of the Integrated Disinfection Byproducts Mixtures Research Project (the 4Lab Study) is provision of sound, defensible, experimental data on environmentally relevant mixtures of DBP and an improved estimation of the potential health risks associated with exposure to the mixtures of DBP formed during disinfection of drinking water. A phased research plan was developed and implemented. The present series of articles provides the results from the first series of experiments.

Integrated disinfection by-products research: assessing reproductive and developmental risks posed by complex disinfection by-product mixtures.

This article presents a toxicologically-based risk assessment strategy for identifying the individual components or fractions of a complex mixture that are associated with its toxicity. The strategy relies on conventional component-based mixtures risk approaches such as dose addition, response addition, and analyses of interactions. Developmental toxicity data from two drinking-water concentrates containing disinfection by-products (DBP) mixtures were used to illustrate the strategy. The results of this study showed that future studies of DBP concentrates using the Chernoff-Kavlock bioassay need to consider evaluating DBP that are concentrated more than 130-fold and using a rat strain that is more sensitive to chemically-induced pregnancy loss than Sprague-Dawley rats. The results support the planned experimental design of a multigeneration reproductive and developmental study of DBP concentrates. Finally, this article discusses the need for a systematic evaluation of DBP concentrates obtained from multiple source waters and treatment types. The development of such a database could be useful in evaluating whether a specific DBP concentrate is sufficiently similar to tested combinations of source waters and treatment alternatives so that health risks for the former may be estimated using data on the latter.

Short-term exposures to dihaloacetic acids produce dysmorphogenesis in mouse conceptuses in vitro.

The haloacetic acids (HAAs) are a family of xenobiotics found in tap water as a result of drinking water disinfection. Administration of HAAs to rats produces a variety of adverse effects, including developmental toxicity. The dysmorphogenic potencies of all nine bromo/chloro-acetic acids have been determined in rodent whole embryo culture using standard 26-h exposure. Since the half-lives of the HAAs in vivo are typically <8 h, the developmental effects of short-term exposures to dihaloacetates were evaluated. Gestation day 8 (3-6 somite pairs) CD-1 mouse conceptuses were exposed to 11,000 microM dichloroacetic acid (DCA), 300 microM dibromoacetic acid (DBA) or 300 microM bromochloroacetic acid (BCA) for culture periods of 1, 3, 6 or 26 h. Following 1, 3 or 6 h of exposure to HAAs, conceptuses were transferred to control medium to complete a 26-h culture period. The amounts of HAAs present in embryos after 1, 3 and 6h of exposure were determined. Increased incidences of dysmorphic embryos were produced by 6 or 26-h exposures to DCA; a 26-h exposure to DBA; or 3, 6 or 26-h exposures to BCA. The dysmorphology produced was dependent upon the length of exposure and chemical. The embryonic concentration of each HAA (104.5, 2.5 and 2.6 pmol/microg protein for DCA, DBA and BCA, respectively) was reached by 1h of exposure and did not change at the subsequent time points examined. The current studies demonstrate that BCA is more potent than DBA or DCA at disrupting embryogenesis since shorter exposures alter morphogenesis. Since the embryonic HAA concentrations were the same at the three time points measured, the time-dependence in dysmorphogenesis does not appear to be a simple function of increasing embryonic concentration of these chemicals. These studies demonstrate that for these dihaloacetic acids relatively high concentrations and long exposures are needed to alter rodent development in vitro.