Long Term Exposure to Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate-Containing Antiretroviral Therapy Is Associated with Renal Impairment in an African Cohort of HIV-Infected Adults.

OBJECTIVES AND METHOD: There are growing concerns of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)-associated renal toxicity. We evaluated the effect of long-term TDF exposure on renal function in a cohort of HIV-1-infected Nigerians between 2006 and 2015. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify predictors of renal impairment at different time over 144 weeks of antiretroviral therapy (ART). RESULTS: Data of 4897 patients, median age 42 years (interquartile range: 36-49), and 61% females were analyzed. The prevalence of renal impairment increased from 10% at week 24 to 45% at 144 weeks in TDF-exposed participants compared to an increase from 8% at 24 weeks to 14% at 144 weeks in TDF-unexposed participants. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate exposure predicted the risk of renal impairment at 144 weeks of ART (odds ratio: 2.36; 95% confidence interval: 1.28-4.34). CONCLUSION: Long-term exposure to TDF-based ART significantly increases the likelihood of renal impairment. The continued use of TDF-based regimen in our setting should be reviewed. We recommend the urgent introduction of tenofovir alafenamide-based regimen in the HIV treatment guidelines of Nigeria and other resource-limited countries.

Changes in the haematological parameters of HIV-1 infected children at 6 and 12 months of antiretroviral therapy in a large clinic cohort, North-Central Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Prior to commencing antiretroviral therapy (ART), haematological abnormalities are a common occurrence in individuals diagnosed with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In the course of receiving ART, these abnormalities usually improve. We determined the prevalence of haematological abnormalities in children diagnosed with HIV-1 and the changes in haematological parameters that occur after 6 and 12 months of being on ART. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of HIV-1 infected children aged 2 months to 15 years, between July 2005 and March 2013, at the paediatric HIV clinic of the Jos University Teaching Hospital, Jos. Median values of repeated measures were compared using the Wilcoxon signed-rank sum test. RESULTS: The prevalence of anaemia, thrombocytopenia and leukopenia among the 941 children studied, prior to ART was 6.4%, 7.0% and 8.6%. Median (IQR) haemoglobin (Hb) levels increased from 10 g/dL (9-11 g/dL) at baseline to 11 g/dL (10-12 g/dL) and 11 g/dL (10-12 g/dL) at 6 and 12 months of ART (P<0.001 and P<0.001), respectively, a 10% increase in both cases. Also, platelet count increased from a median of 327×103/µL (243-426×103/µL) at baseline to 333×103/µL (266-408×103/µL) at 6 months and 339×103/µL (267-420×103/µL) at 12 months, representing a 1.8% and 3.7% increase, respectively. The median total white blood cell count decreased from 7.4×103/µL (5.3-9.9×103/µL) at baseline to 5.9×103/µL (4.6-8.0×103/µL) and 5.8×103/µL (4.5-7.5×103/µL) at 6 and 12 months of ART (P<0.001 and P<0.001), a 20.3% and 21.6% decrease, respectively. CONCLUSION: During the 12 months of ART, children in our cohort had significant improvements in haematological parameters such as haemoglobin levels and platelet counts, which would suggest an early positive response to ART.

Hypertension in treated and untreated patients with HIV: a study from 2011 to 2013 at the Jos University Teaching Hospital, Nigeria.

Background: Individuals with HIV, especially those on antiretroviral therapy (ART), may have increased risk of hypertension. We investigated the prevalence of hypertension at enrolment and 12 months after commencing ART in a Nigerian HIV clinic. Methods: Data from patients enrolled for ART from 2011 to 2013 were analysed, including 2310 patients at enrolment and 1524 re-evaluated after 12 months of ART. The presence of hypertension, demographic, clinical and biochemical data were retrieved from standardized databases. Bivariate and logistic regressions were used to identify baseline risk factors for hypertension. Results: Prevalence of hypertension at enrolment was 19.3% (95% CI 17.6-20.9%), and age (p<0.001), male sex (p=0.004) and body mass index (BMI) (p<0.001) were independent risk factors for hypertension. Twelve months after initiating ART, a further 31% (95% CI 17.6-20.9%) had developed hypertension. Total prevalence at that point was 50.2%. Hypertension among those on ART was associated with age (p=0.009) and BMI (p=0.008), but not with sex. There were no independently significant associations between hypertension and CD4+ counts, viral load or type of ART. Conclusions: Hypertension is common in HIV infected individuals attending the HIV clinic. Patients initiating ART have a high risk of developing hypertension in the first year of ART. Since BMI is modifiable, life-style advice aimed at weight reduction is strongly advisable.

Prevalence and predictors of severe menopause symptoms among HIV-positive and -negative Nigerian women.

We compared the prevalence of menopause symptoms between women living with HIV to their HIV-negative peers and determined predictors of severe menopause symptoms in Jos, Nigeria. This descriptive cross-sectional study included 714 women aged 40-80 years. We compared prevalence and severity of menopause symptoms using the menopause rating scale (MRS). Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the predictors of severe symptoms. Six-hundred and seven (85.0%) were HIV-positive, with a mean duration of infection of 5.6 ± 2.7 years. The mean age of the cohort was 46 ± 5 years. The most prevalent menopause symptoms were hot flushes (67.2%), joint and muscle discomfort (66.2%), physical/mental exhaustion (65.3%), heart discomfort (60.4%), and anxiety (56.4%). The median MRS score was higher for HIV-positive compared to HIV-negative women (p = 0.01). Factors associated with severe menopause symptoms included HIV-positive status (aOR: 3.01, 95% CI: 1.20-7.54) and history of cigarette smoking (aOR: 4.18, 95% CI: 1.31-13.26). Being married (aOR: 0.49, 95% CI: 0.32-0.77), premenopausal (aOR: 0.60, 95% CI: 0.39-0.94), and self-reporting good quality of life (aOR: 0.62. 95% CI: 0.39-0.98) were protective against severe menopause symptoms. We found HIV infection, cigarette smoking, quality of life, and stage of the menopause transition to be associated with severe menopause symptoms. As HIV-positive populations are aging, additional attention should be given to the reproductive health of these women.

Demographic and clinical correlates of HIV-1 RNA levels in antiretroviral therapy-naive adults attending a tertiary hospital in Jos, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Plasma HIV-RNA viral load (VL) of HIV-infected persons is an important prognostic factor in HIV management. We determined the VL among antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naive patients to identify the association between patients' demographic, clinical and laboratory characteristics with VL. METHOD: A cross-sectional study of 224 ART-naive HIV-1-infected patients (≥15 years of age) accessing care at the Jos University Teaching Hospital AIDS Prevention Initiative in Nigeria ART treatment centre, from October 2010 to April 2011. A log-linear model was used to determine if VL was related to demographic and clinical variables. RESULTS: The patients had a median (interquartile range) age of 34 (28-41) years with females in the majority (59%). Females compared to males and pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) co-infected compared to not co-infected patients had a significantly higher VL (14.9 loge versus 11.5 loge, P=0.003 and 11.31 loge versus 11.89 loge, P=0.047, respectively). VL tended to decrease with increasing CD4+ cell count levels in females, but remained relatively unchanged in males across all values of CD4+ cell counts. The difference (ß) in the mean change in VL between males and females was loge 0.64 copies/mL, P=0.005. CONCLUSION: In ART-naive HIV-1-infected patients in our setting, females had significantly higher VL and lower CD4+ cell count, at the same VL threshold, compared to males, and hence were more likely to be at a higher risk of rapid progression to AIDS. Therefore, gender-based strategies for early identification and engaging females into care are required in this setting to mitigate against rapid progression to AIDS.

Sexual dysfunction and its determinants among women infected with HIV.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of female sexual dysfunction (FSD) and its determinants among women with HIV infection enrolled for care and treatment in an ambulatory care setting. METHODS: A questionnaire-based cross-sectional survey was conducted among women attending the HIV clinic of Jos University Teaching Hospital, Nigeria, between March 2013 and February 2014. The self-administered Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) was used to assess FSD; a score of less than 26.55 indicated FSD. Pearson coefficient was used to assess interdomain correlation, and multiple linear regression was used to identify factors associated with FSD. RESULTS: Among 370 participants, 330 (89.2%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 85.6%-92.2%) had FSD. The overall median FSFI score was 19.2 (interquartile range [IQR] 6.4-23.9). The arousal domain had the lowest subscore (median 2.7, IQR 0.0-3.6). The highest interdomain correlations were between lubrication and orgasm (r=0.87), arousal and lubrication (r=0.84), and arousal and orgasm (r=0.81) domains. Satisfactory health (ß=3.34, 95% CI 1.16-5.52) and history of alcohol use (ß=2.38, 95% CI 0.28-4.47) were independently associated with FSD. CONCLUSION: FSD was prevalent among women with HIV infection. Care providers need to routinely address FSD as part of a comprehensive care package in the study setting.

Treatment Outcomes Among Older Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Adults in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Older age at initiation of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has been associated with poorer clinical outcomes. Our objectives were to compare outcomes between older and younger patients in our clinical cohort in Jos, Nigeria. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study evaluated patients enrolled on cART at the Jos University Teaching Hospital, Nigeria between 2004 and 2012. We compared baseline and treatment differences between older (≥50 years) and younger (15-49 years) patients. Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazard models estimated survival and loss to follow-up (LTFU) and determined factors associated with these outcomes at 24 months. RESULTS: Of 8352 patients, 643 (7.7%) were aged ≥50 years. The median change in CD4 count from baseline was 151 vs 132 (P = .0005) at 12 months and 185 vs 151 cells/mm3 (P = .03) at 24 months for younger and older patients, respectively. A total of 68.9% vs 71.6% (P = .13) and 69.6% vs 74.8% (P = .005) of younger and older patients achieved viral suppression at 12 and 24 months, with similar incidence of mortality and LTFU. In adjusted hazard models, factors associated with increased risk of mortality were male sex, World Health Organization (WHO) stage III/IV, and having a gap in care, whereas being fully suppressed was protective. The risk of being LTFU was lower for older patients, those fully suppressed virologically and with adherence rates >95%. Male sex, lack of education, WHO stage III/IV, body mass index <18.5 kg/m2, and having a gap in care independently predicted LTFU. CONCLUSIONS: Older patients achieved better viral suppression, and older age was not associated with increased mortality or LTFU in this study.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in a Large Adult Cohort in Jos, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and the use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, data from regions with a high burden of HIV/AIDS are limited. We determined the prevalence of T2DM at the time of presentation to a large HIV clinic in Nigeria, as well as the incidence of diabetes 12 months following ART initiation. METHODS: Data from patients enrolled for ART from 2011 to 2013 was analyzed, including 2632 patients on enrollment and 2452 reevaluated after 12 months of ART commencement. The presence of diabetes, and demographic, clinical, and biochemical data were retrieved from standardized databases. CD4(+), HIV RNA load, and hepatitis C virus status were noted. Bivariate and logistic regressions were used to identify risk factors for T2DM. RESULTS: Baseline T2DM prevalence was 2.3% (95% confidence interval, 1.8%-2.9%); age, but not body mass index (BMI), was a risk factor for diabetes. After 12 months of ART, an additional 5.3% had developed T2DM. Newly developed diabetes was not associated with age, but was associated with BMI. There were no significant associations between prevalent or incident diabetes and CD4(+), viral load, or type of ART. CONCLUSIONS: Diabetes is not uncommon in HIV-infected individuals at the time of presentation to HIV services. Patients initiating ART have a high risk of developing diabetes in the first year of ART. Excessive weight gain should be avoided, as incident diabetes was associated with a BMI ≥25.0 kg/m(2).

Prevalence of and risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis among newly diagnosed HIV-1 infected Nigerian children.

INTRODUCTION: Studies on the prevalence of and risk factors for tuberculosis (TB) among newly diagnosed human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children in sub-Saharan Africa are scarce and in Nigeria there is paucity of reported data. We determined the prevalence of and risk factors for pulmonary TB (PTB) in newly diagnosed (treatment-naïve) HIV-1 infected children at the pediatric HIV clinic of the Jos University Teaching Hospital (JUTH) in Nigeria. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of 876 children, aged 2 months - 13 years, diagnosed with HIV-1 infection between July 2005 and December 2012, of which 286 were diagnosed with PTB at presentation after TB screening. The study site was the AIDS Prevention Initiative in Nigeria (APIN)-supported Pediatric HIV clinic at JUTH, Jos. A multivariate forward logistic regression modelling was used to identify risk factors for PTB-HIV co-infection. RESULTS: The prevalence of PTB-HIV co-infection was 32% (286/876). Severe immunosuppression (SI) and World Health Organization (WHO) HIV clinical stage 3/4 were identified as independent risk factors for PTB-HIV co-infection in HIV infected children. The odds of PTB-HIV co-infection was increased two-fold in HIV-infected children with WHO clinical stage 3/4 compared to those with stage 1/2 (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.76 [1.31-2.37], p<0.001) and 1.5-fold in children with SI compared to those without SI (AOR 1.52 [1.12-2.06], p=0.007). CONCLUSION: In our setting, the burden of PTB was high among newly diagnosed HIV-infected children, and late WHO HIV clinical stage and severe immunosuppression were associated with PTB-HIV co-infection. Therefore there is a clear need to improve strategies for early diagnosis of both HIV and PTB to optimize clinical outcomes.

Mortality among pulmonary tuberculosis and HIV-1 co-infected Nigerian children being treated for pulmonary tuberculosis and on antiretroviral therapy: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Mortality data, including the risk factors for mortality in HIV-infected children with pulmonary TB (PTB) being treated for PTB and who are on antiretroviral therapy (ART), are scarce in Nigeria. We determined the mortality rate and risk factors for mortality among such children, at the pediatric HIV clinic of the Jos University Teaching Hospital (JUTH) in Jos, Nigeria. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study on 260 PTB-HIV-1 co-infected children, aged 2 months to 13 years, being treated for PTB and on ART from July 2005 to March 2013. The mortality rate and associated risk factors were determined using multivariate Cox proportional hazards modelling. RESULTS: The mortality rate for the study cohort was 1.4 per 100 child-years of follow-up. Median follow-up time was 5.2 years (IQR, 3.5-6.0 years) with total study time being 1159 child-years. The median age of those who died was lower than that of survivors, 1.9 years (IQR, 0.6-3.6 years) versus 3.8 years (IQR, 1.8-6.0 years), p=0.005). The majority of the deaths occurred in males (13, 81.2%), those <5 years of age (14, 87.4%) and those who had severe immunosuppression (11, 68.8%). Risk factors for death were age (with the risk of dying decreasing by 25% for every 1 year increase in age, adjusted hazard ratio (AHR)=0.75 [0.58-0.98], p=0.032), male gender (AHR=3.80 [1.07-13.5], p=0.039) and severe immunosuppression (AHR=3.35 [1.16-9.66], p=0.025). CONCLUSION: In our clinic setting, mortality among our PTB-HIV co-infected children being treated for PTB and on ART was low. However, those presenting with severe immunosuppression and who are males and very young, should be monitored more closely during follow-up in order to further reduce mortality.

Incidence and predictors of adverse drug events in an African cohort of HIV-infected adults treated with efavirenz.

INTRODUCTION: Adverse drug reactions associated with efavirenz (EFV) therapy are poorly described beyond the first year of treatment. We aimed to describe the incidence and predictors of EFV-related adverse drug reactions (ADRs) in a cohort of adult Nigerian HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART). METHODS: This retrospective cohort study utilized clinical data of HIV-1 infected adults (aged ≥15 years), commenced on efavirenz containing-regimen between January 2004 and December 2011. The time-dependent occurrence of clinical adverse events as defined by the World Health Organization was analyzed by Cox regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 2920 patients with baseline median (IQR) age of 39 (33-46) years, largely made up of men (78%) were included in the study. During 8834 person-years of follow up, 358 adverse drug events were reported; the incidence rate was 40.3 ADRs per 1000 person-years of treatment. Lipodystrophy and neuropsychiatric disorders were the most common ADRs with incidences of 63 and 30 per 1000 patients respectively. About one-third of the neuropsychiatric adverse events were within 12 months of commencement of ART. The risk of neuropsychiatric ADRs was independently predicted for women [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 9.05; 95% CI: 5.18-15.82], those aged <40 years (aHR 2.59; 95% CI: 1.50-4.45), advanced HIV disease (WHO stage 3 or 4) [aHR 2.26; 95% CI: 1.37-3.72], and zidovudine [aHR 2.21; 95% CI: 1.27-3.83] or stavudine [aHR 4.22; 95% CI: 1.99-8.92] containing regimen compared to tenofovir. CONCLUSION: Neuropsychiatric adverse drug events associated with efavirenz-based ART had both early and late onset in our clinical cohort of patients on chronic EFV therapy. Continuous neuropsychiatric assessment for improved detection and management of neuropsychiatric ADRs is recommended in resource-limited settings where the use of efavirenz-based regimens has been scaled up.

High-risk human papilloma virus and cervical abnormalities in HIV-infected women with normal cervical cytology.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of High-Risk Human papilloma virus (HR-HPV), a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer (ICC) is relatively high in HIV infected women. Gaps exist in our knowledge of the optimal approaches for managing women who have HR-HPV with normal cervical cytology (NCC) particularly in settings of HIV infection. METHODS: Between May 2012 and June 2013 we conducted a colposcopic assessment of HIV-infected women with prior (NCC) and known HR-HPV status to compare cervical abnormalities in women with and without HR-HPV. Colposcopic examinations were done at the Operation Stop Cervical Cancer (OSCC) unit of the Jos University Teaching Hospital (JUTH), Jos, Nigeria. Abnormal colposcopic finding (ACF) was defined as areas of aceto-white epithelium involving the squamo-coulumnar junction, areas of punctation, mosaic pattern or atypical vessels. We compared proportions of ACF as well as histologic grades of cervical intra-epithelial neoplasia (CIN) in women with or without HR-HPV. Statistical analysis was done on STATA. RESULTS: We conducted colposcopic examinations in 78 out of 89 (86.5%) eligible women. The mean age of the cohort was 32.4 years (SD ±4.6) with a median 32 years (IQR 29-36). After a mean follow up time of 20.1 months from the initial cervical pap cytology and HR-HPV testing, we found 12 of 78 (15.4%) women with ACF. The odds for an ACF was statistically higher [OR = 4.0 (95% CI: 1.1-14.7)] in women with HR-HPV compared to those without. Of the twelve women with ACF, subsequent histologic examination of colposcopically directed cervical biopsies confirmed CIN 1 in 4 cases (33.3%), CIN 2 in 1 case (8.3%), CIN 3 in 2 cases (16.7%), carcinoma-in-situ (CIS) in 2 cases (16.7%), and normal cervix in 3 (25.0%). Overall, the proportion of women detected with any grade of CIN was 11.5% (9/78) and 6.4% (5/78) were CIN 2 or greater lesion (CIN2+). CONCLUSION: HIV-infected women with NCC and HR-HPV had a four-fold higher likelihood for an ACF. The practice of early colposcopic examination of HIV-infected women with prior NCC and HR-HPV may increase early detection of higher grade CIN and CIS cancer stages in our setting.

Treatment outcomes in a decentralized antiretroviral therapy program: a comparison of two levels of care in north central Nigeria.

Background. Decentralization of antiretroviral therapy (ART) services is a key strategy to achieving universal access to treatment for people living with HIV/AIDS. Our objective was to assess clinical and laboratory outcomes within a decentralized program in Nigeria. Methods. Using a tiered hub-and-spoke model to decentralize services, a tertiary hospital scaled down services to 13 secondary-level hospitals using national and program guidelines. We obtained sociodemographic, clinical, and immunovirologic data on previously antiretroviral drug naïve patients aged ≥15 years that received HAART for at least 6 months and compared treatment outcomes between the prime and satellite sites. Results. Out of 7,747 patients, 3729 (48.1%) were enrolled at the satellites while on HAART, prime site patients achieved better immune reconstitution based on CD4+ cell counts at 12 (P < 0.001) and 24 weeks (P < 0.001) with similar responses at 48 weeks (P = 0.11) and higher rates of viral suppression (<400 c/mL) at 12 (P < 0.001) and 48 weeks (P = 0.03), but similar responses at 24 weeks (P = 0.21). Mortality was 2.3% versus 5.0% (P < 0.001) at prime and satellite sites, while transfer rate was 8.7% versus 5.5% (P = 0.001) at prime and satellites. Conclusion. ART decentralization is feasible in resource-limited settings, but efforts have to be intensified to maintain good quality of care.

Predictors of Mortality in a Clinic Cohort of HIV-1 Infected Children Initiated on Antiretroviral Therapy in Jos, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Mortality among human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) infected children initiated on antiretroviral therapy (ART) though on a decline still remains high in resource-limited countries (RLC). Identifying baseline factors that predict mortality could allow their possible modification in order to improve pediatric HIV care and reduce mortality. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study analyzing data on 691 children, aged 2 months-15 years, diagnosed with HIV-1 infection and initiated on ART between July 2005 and March 2013 at the pediatric HIV clinic of Jos University Teaching Hospital. Lost to follow-up children were excluded from the analyses. A multivariate Cox proportional hazards model was fitted to identify predictors of mortality. RESULTS: Median follow-up time for the 691 children initiated on ART was 4.4 years (interquartile range (IQR), 1.8-5.9) and at the end of 2752 person-years of follow-up, 32 (4.6%) had died and 659 (95.4%) survived. The mortality rate was 1.0 per 100 child-years of follow-up period. The median age of those who died was about two times lower than that of survivors [1.7 years (IQR, 0.6-3.6) versus 3.9 years (IQR, 3.9-10.3), p<0.001]. On unadjusted Cox regression, the risk of dying was about three and half times more in children <5 years of age compared to those >5 years (p=0.02) Multivariate modeling identified age as the main predictor of death with mortality decreasing by 24% for every 1 year increase in age (Adjusted Hazard Ratio (AHR)=0.76 [0.62-0.94], p=0.013. CONCLUSION: The lower mortality rate for our study suggests that even in RLC, mortality rates could be reduced given a good standard of care. Early initiation of ART in younger children with close monitoring during follow-up could further reduce mortality.

High-risk human papillomavirus among HIV-infected women with normal cervical cytology: a pilot study in Jos, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Cervical cancer is strongly linked to high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) and is typically preceded by cytological abnormalities. Less is known in patients with normal cervical cytology (NCC). We investigated the epidemiology of HR-HPV among HIV-infected women with NCC. METHODOLOGY: We conducted a cross-sectional study between January and June 2011 among HIV-infected women with NCC at an adult HIV clinic in Jos, Nigeria. Cervical sampling and analysis for HR-HPV by hybrid capture (HC2) with signal amplification was done to determine presence of one or more of the following HR-HPV types: 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59 or 68. Epidemiologic factors associated with HR-HPV were determined using bivariate statistics and multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: We evaluated 103 HIV-infected women with Pap cytology. The median age of the women was 32 years (range 21-49). Ninety-seven (94.2%) had NCC. Cervical samples for HR-HPV DNA testing were available from 89/97 (91.8%) of the HIV-infected women with NCC. Of the 89 women with cervical samples for HR-HPV DNA testing, 40 (44.9%) had detectable HR-HPV by HC2 giving a HR-HPV prevalence of 44.9% (95% CI 33.9-55.5%). Age < 30 years was associated with HR-HPV (OR 2.69 [95% CI 1.05-6.91, p = 0.039]) while history of previous abortion showed an inverse association with HR-HPV (OR 0.33[95% CI 0.15-0.94, p = 0.039]). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of HR-HPV is seemingly high among HIV-infected women with NCC in our clinical setting. These data provide support for further investigation of the clinical implications of positive HR-HPV among HIV-infected women with NCC report in cervical cancer prevention programs in Nigeria.

Association of HIV and ART with cardiometabolic traits in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has the highest burden of HIV in the world and a rising prevalence of cardiometabolic disease; however, the interrelationship between HIV, antiretroviral therapy (ART) and cardiometabolic traits is not well described in SSA populations. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis through MEDLINE and EMBASE (up to January 2012), as well as direct author contact. Eligible studies provided summary or individual-level data on one or more of the following traits in HIV+ and HIV-, or ART+ and ART- subgroups in SSA: body mass index (BMI), systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides (TGs) and fasting blood glucose (FBG) or glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c). Information was synthesized under a random-effects model and the primary outcomes were the standardized mean differences (SMD) of the specified traits between subgroups of participants. RESULTS: Data were obtained from 49 published and 3 unpublished studies which reported on 29 755 individuals. HIV infection was associated with higher TGs [SMD, 0.26; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.08 to 0.44] and lower HDL (SMD, -0.59; 95% CI, -0.86 to -0.31), BMI (SMD, -0.32; 95% CI, -0.45 to -0.18), SBP (SMD, -0.40; 95% CI, -0.55 to -0.25) and DBP (SMD, -0.34; 95% CI, -0.51 to -0.17). Among HIV+ individuals, ART use was associated with higher LDL (SMD, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.14 to 0.72) and HDL (SMD, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.11 to 0.66), and lower HbA1c (SMD, -0.34; 95% CI, -0.62 to -0.06). Fully adjusted estimates from analyses of individual participant data were consistent with meta-analysis of summary estimates for most traits. CONCLUSIONS: Broadly consistent with results from populations of European descent, these results suggest differences in cardiometabolic traits between HIV-infected and uninfected individuals in SSA, which might be modified by ART use. In a region with the highest burden of HIV, it will be important to clarify these findings to reliably assess the need for monitoring and managing cardiometabolic risk in HIV-infected populations in SSA.

Prevalence of malaria parasitaemia in adult HIV-infected patients in Jos, North-central Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and malaria co-infection has become an important public health problem in sub-Saharan Africa. Data on HIV and malaria interaction in Nigerian adults is scanty. We determined the prevalence of malaria parasitaemia in HIV-infected adults and further investigated the role of immune status in the HIV/malaria association. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study involving 100 newly-diagnosed HIV-infected adults and 100 age and sex-matched HIV negative controls. Malaria parasitaemia was diagnosed by blood film microscopy using Giemsa staining technique and was defined as the presence of malaria parasites irrespective of species or parasite density. HIV infection was confirmed by western blot assay and CD4 T-lymphocyte count of the HIV-infected patients was quantified by flow cytometry. RESULTS: The prevalence of malaria parasitaemia was higher in HIV-infected adults (24%) than in the controls (9%) (chi2 = 8.17, p = 0.04). Participants residing in rural areas had higher prevalence of malaria parasitaemia than urban dwellers both for HIV-infected patients (34.1% Vs. 16.1%, chi2 = 4.3, p = 0.04) and controls (18.4%, Vs. 6.5%, chi2 = 3.4, p = 0.04). HIV-infected male patients tended to have malaria parasitemia more than their female counterparts (33.3% Vs. 17.2%, chi2 = 3.4, p = 0.06). Among HIV-infected patients, the prevalence of malaria parasitaemia progressively increased at lower CD4 cell counts, 10.3% for CD4 cell count of = 500, 17.5% for 200-499 and 45.2% for < 200 cells/microL (chi2 = 11.5, p = 0.003). CONCLUSION: HIV is likely to fuel malaria infection in tropical countries where both diseases are endemic. Malaria control practices should be further intensified in HIV-infected populations.

Association of HIV-Induced Immunosuppression and Clinical Malaria in Nigerian Adults.

Despite the growing body of evidence on the interaction between HIV and malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, there is a dearth of data on clinical malaria in HIV-infected patients in Nigeria. We determined the burden of clinical malaria in HIV-infected adult Nigerians and further investigated the association between their immunological status and the rates of clinical malaria. Ninety seven antiretroviral treatment-naïve HIV-infected adults were enrolled in a cross-sectional study from August to December, 2009. The participants had a complete clinical evaluation, thick and thin blood films for malaria parasites and CD4 cell count quantification. Clinical malaria was defined as having fever (temperature ≥ 37.5°C or history of fever within 48 hours) and a malaria parasite density above the median value obtained for subjects with co-existing fever and parasitaemia. Clinical malaria was diagnosed in 10 out of 97 patients (10.3%). Lower CD4 cell counts were associated with increasing rates of clinical malaria which was 0% at CD4 cell count of ≥ 500, 2.6% at 200-499 and 30% at <200 cells/µL (χ(2) = 18.3, p = 0.0001). This association remained significant after controlling for other factors in a multivariate analysis (AOR=22.98, 95% C.I: 2.62-20.14, p = 0.005). An inverse relationship between CD4 cell count and parasite density was demonstrated (regression co-efficient = - 0.001, p = 0.0002). More aggressive malaria control measures are highly needed in severely immunosuppressed HIV-infected patients.

Predictors of impaired renal function among HIV infected patients commencing highly active antiretroviral therapy in Jos, Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Kidney disease is a common complication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection even in the era of antiretroviral therapy, with kidney function being abnormal in up to 30% of HIV-infected patients. We determined the predictors of impaired renal function in HIV-infected adults initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in Nigeria. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective study among HIV-1 infected patients attending the antiretroviral clinic at the Jos University Teaching Hospital (JUTH), between November 2005 and November 2007. Data were analysed for age, gender, weight, WHO clinical stage, CD4 count, HIV-1 RNA viral load, HBsAg and anti-HCV antibody status. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was calculated using the Cockcroft-Gault equation. Statistical analysis was done using Epi Info 3.5.1. RESULTS: Data for 491 (294 females and 197 males) eligible patients were abstracted. The mean age of this population was 38.8±8.87 years. One hundred and seventeen patients (23.8%; 95% CI, 20.2-27.9%) had a reduced eGFR (defined as <60 mL/min), with more females than males (28.6% vs. 16.8%; P=0.02) having reduced eGFR. Age and female sex were found to have significant associations with reduced eGFR. Adjusted odds ratios were 1.07 (95% CI, 1.04, 1.10) and 1.96 (95% CI, 1.23, 3.12) for age and female sex, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Older age and female sex are independently associated with a higher likelihood of having lower eGFRs at initiation of HAART among our study population. We recommend assessment of renal function of HIV-infected patients prior to initiation of HAART to guide the choice and dosing of antiretroviral drugs.

Clinical characteristics and predictors of mortality in hospitalized HIV-infected Nigerians.

INTRODUCTION: Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a chief cause of death in sub-Saharan Africa. In this study, the clinical characteristics and predictors of mortality among hospitalized HIV infected adult Nigerians are reported. METHODOLOGY: The records of 354 patients were reviewed for demographic and clinical characteristics. Predictors of mortality using logistic regression in a retrospective study were also reviewed. RESULTS: A total of 109 (30.8%) males and 245 (69.2%) females participated in the study. The mean age of all participants was 35 ± 8 years. Median baseline CD4 cell counts and viral load were 91 cells/mm³ and 63,438 copies/ml respectively. There was a total of 123 (34.8%) deaths while 231 (65.2%) patients were discharged home. Tuberculosis (TB) was the most common diagnosis on admission as well as the leading cause of death. Among all subjects, only male gender (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 4.67, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.63-8.29); CD4 cell count ≤ 200 cells/mm³ (AOR 5.28, 95% CI: 2.99-9.31); length of hospital stay < 3 days (AOR 4.77, 95% CI: 1.35-16.86); and age ≥ 35 years (AOR 2.43, 95% CI: 1.41-4.19) were predictive of death. CONCLUSION: These findings illustrate the need for early diagnosis of HIV infection, appropriate treatment and prevention of opportunistic infections, and improved access to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).