Loss of Katnal2 leads to ependymal ciliary hyperfunction and autism-related phenotypes in mice.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) frequently accompany macrocephaly, which often involves hydrocephalic enlargement of brain ventricles. Katnal2 is a microtubule-regulatory protein strongly linked to ASD, but it remains unclear whether Katnal2 knockout (KO) in mice leads to microtubule- and ASD-related molecular, synaptic, brain, and behavioral phenotypes. We found that Katnal2-KO mice display ASD-like social communication deficits and age-dependent progressive ventricular enlargements. The latter involves increased length and beating frequency of motile cilia on ependymal cells lining ventricles. Katnal2-KO hippocampal neurons surrounded by enlarged lateral ventricles show progressive synaptic deficits that correlate with ASD-like transcriptomic changes involving synaptic gene down-regulation. Importantly, early postnatal Katnal2 re-expression prevents ciliary, ventricular, and behavioral phenotypes in Katnal2-KO adults, suggesting a causal relationship and a potential treatment. Therefore, Katnal2 negatively regulates ependymal ciliary function and its deletion in mice leads to ependymal ciliary hyperfunction and hydrocephalus accompanying ASD-related behavioral, synaptic, and transcriptomic changes.

Early therapy evaluation of intra-arterial trastuzumab injection in a human breast cancer xenograft model using multiparametric MR imaging.

PURPOSE: To investigate the treatment efficacy of intra-arterial (IA) trastuzumab treatment using multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a human breast cancer xenograft model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Human breast cancer cells (BT474) were stereotaxically injected into the brains of nude mice to obtain a xenograft model. The mice were divided into four groups and subjected to different treatments (IA treatment [IA-T], intravenous treatment [IV-T], IA saline injection [IA-S], and the sham control group). MRI was performed before and at 7 and 14 d after treatment to assess the efficacy of the treatment. The tumor volume, apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), and dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) MRI parameters (Ktrans, Kep, Ve, and Vp) were measured. RESULTS: Tumor volumes in the IA-T group at 14 d after treatment were significantly lower than those in the IV-T group (13.1 mm3 [interquartile range 8.48-16.05] vs. 25.69 mm3 [IQR 20.39-30.29], p = 0.005), control group (IA-S, 33.83 mm3 [IQR 32.00-36.30], p<0.01), and sham control (39.71 mm3 [IQR 26.60-48.26], p <0.001). The ADC value in the IA-T group was higher than that in the control groups (IA-T, 7.62 [IQR 7.23-8.20] vs. IA-S, 6.77 [IQR 6.48-6.87], p = 0.044 and vs. sham control, 6.89 [IQR 4.93-7.48], p = 0.004). Ktrans was significantly decreased following the treatment compared to that in the control groups (p = 0.002 and p<0.001 for vs. IA-S and sham control, respectively). Tumor growth was decreased in the IV-T group compared to that in the sham control group (25.69 mm3 [IQR 20.39-30.29] vs. 39.71 mm3 [IQR 26.60-48.26], p = 0.27); there was no significant change in the MRI parameters. CONCLUSION: IA treatment with trastuzumab potentially affects the early response to treatment, including decreased tumor growth and decrease of Ktrans, in a preclinical brain tumor model.

Anterior cingulate cortex-related functional hyperconnectivity underlies sensory hypersensitivity in Grin2b-mutant mice.

Sensory abnormalities are observed in ~90% of individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. GluN2B, an NMDA receptor subunit that regulates long-term depression and circuit refinement during brain development, has been strongly implicated in ASD, but whether GRIN2B mutations lead to sensory abnormalities remains unclear. Here, we report that Grin2b-mutant mice show behavioral sensory hypersensitivity and brain hyperconnectivity associated with the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Grin2b-mutant mice with a patient-derived C456Y mutation (Grin2bC456Y/+) show sensory hypersensitivity to mechanical, thermal, and electrical stimuli through supraspinal mechanisms. c-fos and functional magnetic resonance imaging indicate that the ACC is hyperactive and hyperconnected with other brain regions under baseline and stimulation conditions. ACC pyramidal neurons show increased excitatory synaptic transmission. Chemogenetic inhibition of ACC pyramidal neurons normalizes ACC hyperconnectivity and sensory hypersensitivity. These results suggest that GluN2B critically regulates ASD-related cortical connectivity and sensory brain functions.

No replication of direct neuronal activity-related (DIANA) fMRI in anesthetized mice.

Direct imaging of neuronal activity (DIANA) by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) could be a revolutionary approach for advancing systems neuroscience research. To independently replicate this observation, we performed fMRI experiments in anesthetized mice. The blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) response to whisker stimulation was reliably detected in the primary barrel cortex before and after DIANA experiments; however, no DIANA-like fMRI peak was observed in individual animals' data with the 50 to 300 trials. Extensively averaged data involving 1050 trials in six mice showed a flat baseline and no detectable neuronal activity-like fMRI peak. However, spurious, nonreplicable peaks were found when using a small number of trials, and artifactual peaks were detected when some outlier-like trials were excluded. Further, no detectable DIANA peak was observed in the BOLD-responding thalamus from the selected trials with the neuronal activity-like reference function in the barrel cortex. Thus, we were unable to replicate the previously reported results without data preselection.

Mapping cerebral perfusion in mice under various anesthesia levels using highly sensitive BOLD MRI with transient hypoxia.

Cerebral perfusion is critical for the early detection of neurological diseases and for effectively monitoring disease progression and treatment responses. Mouse models are widely used in brain research, often under anesthesia, which can affect vascular physiology. However, the impact of anesthesia on regional cerebral blood volume and flow in mice has not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we have developed a whole-brain perfusion MRI approach by using a 5-second nitrogen gas stimulus under inhalational anesthetics to induce transient BOLD dynamic susceptibility contrast (DSC). This method proved to be highly sensitive, repeatable within each imaging session, and across four weekly sessions. Relative cerebral blood volumes measured by BOLD DSC agree well with those by contrast agents. Quantitative cerebral blood volume and flow metrics were successfully measured in mice under dexmedetomidine and various isoflurane doses using both total vasculature-sensitive gradient-echo and microvasculature-sensitive spin-echo BOLD MRI. Dexmedetomidine reduces cerebral perfusion, while isoflurane increases cerebral perfusion in a dose-dependent manner.

No Replication of Direct Neuronal Activity-related (DIANA) fMRI in Anesthetized Mice.

Toi et al. (Science, 378, 160-168, 2022) reported direct imaging of neuronal activity (DIANA) by fMRI in anesthetized mice at 9.4 T, which could be a revolutionary approach for advancing systems neuroscience research. There have been no independent replications of this observation to date. We performed fMRI experiments in anesthetized mice at an ultrahigh field of 15.2 T using the identical protocol as in their paper. The BOLD response to whisker stimulation was reliably detected in the primary barrel cortex before and after DIANA experiments; however, no direct neuronal activity-like fMRI peak was observed in individual animals' data with the 50-300 trials used in the DIANA publication. Extensively averaged data involving 1,050 trials in 6 mice (1,050×54 = 56,700 stimulus events) and having a temporal signal-to-noise ratio of 7,370, showed a flat baseline and no detectable neuronal activity-like fMRI peak. Thus we were unable to replicate the previously reported results using the same methods, despite a much higher number of trials, a much higher temporal signal-to-noise ratio, and a much higher magnetic field strength. We were able to demonstrate spurious, non-replicable peaks when using a small number of trials. It was only when performing the inappropriate approach of excluding outliers not conforming to the expected temporal characteristics of the response did we see a clear signal change; however, these signals were not observed when such a outlier elimination approach was not used.

Miniaturized MR-compatible ultrasound system for real-time monitoring of acoustic effects in mice using high-resolution MRI.

Visualization of focused ultrasound in high spatial and temporal resolution is crucial for accurately and precisely targeting brain regions noninvasively. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most widely used noninvasive tool for whole-brain imaging. However, focused ultrasound studies employing high-resolution (> 9.4 T) MRI in small animals are limited by the small size of the radiofrequency (RF) volume coil and the noise sensitivity of the image to external systems such as bulky ultrasound transducers. This technical note reports a miniaturized ultrasound transducer system packaged directly above a mouse brain for monitoring ultrasound-induced effects using high-resolution 9.4 T MRI. Our miniaturized system integrates MR-compatible materials with electromagnetic (EM) noise reduction techniques to demonstrate echo-planar imaging (EPI) signal changes in the mouse brain at various ultrasound acoustic intensities. The proposed ultrasound-MRI system will enable extensive research in the expanding field of ultrasound therapeutics.

Parvalbumin interneuron activity drives fast inhibition-induced vasoconstriction followed by slow substance P-mediated vasodilation.

The role of parvalbumin (PV) interneurons in vascular control is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the hemodynamic responses elicited by optogenetic stimulation of PV interneurons using electrophysiology, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), wide-field optical imaging (OIS), and pharmacological applications. As a control, forepaw stimulation was used. Stimulation of PV interneurons in the somatosensory cortex evoked a biphasic fMRI response in the photostimulation site and negative fMRI signals in projection regions. Activation of PV neurons engaged two separable neurovascular mechanisms in the stimulation site. First, an early vasoconstrictive response caused by the PV-driven inhibition is sensitive to the brain state affected by anesthesia or wakefulness. Second, a later ultraslow vasodilation lasting a minute is closely dependent on the sum of interneuron multiunit activities, but is not due to increased metabolism, neural or vascular rebound, or increased glial activity. The ultraslow response is mediated by neuropeptide substance P (SP) released from PV neurons under anesthesia, but disappears during wakefulness, suggesting that SP signaling is important for vascular regulation during sleep. Our findings provide a comprehensive perspective about the role of PV neurons in controlling the vascular response.

Whole-brain mapping of effective connectivity by fMRI with cortex-wide patterned optogenetics.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with optogenetic neural manipulation is a powerful tool that enables brain-wide mapping of effective functional networks. To achieve flexible manipulation of neural excitation throughout the mouse cortex, we incorporated spatiotemporal programmable optogenetic stimuli generated by a digital micromirror device into an MRI scanner via an optical fiber bundle. This approach offered versatility in space and time in planning the photostimulation pattern, combined with in situ optical imaging and cell-type-specific or circuit-specific genetic targeting in individual mice. Brain-wide effective connectivity obtained by fMRI with optogenetic stimulation of atlas-based cortical regions is generally congruent with anatomically defined axonal tracing data but is affected by the types of anesthetics that act selectively on specific connections. fMRI combined with flexible optogenetics opens a new path to investigate dynamic changes in functional brain states in the same animal through high-throughput brain-wide effective connectivity mapping.

General-Purpose Ultrasound Neuromodulation System for Chronic, Closed-Loop Preclinical Studies in Freely Behaving Rodents.

Transcranial focused ultrasound stimulation (tFUS) is an effective noninvasive treatment modality for brain disorders with high clinical potential. However, the therapeutic effects of ultrasound neuromodulation are not widely explored due to limitations in preclinical systems. The current preclinical studies are head-fixed, anesthesia-dependent, and acute, limiting clinical translatability. Here, this work reports a general-purpose ultrasound neuromodulation system for chronic, closed-loop preclinical studies in freely behaving rodents. This work uses microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology to design and fabricate a small and lightweight transducer capable of artifact-free stimulation and simultaneous neural recording. Using the general-purpose system, it can be observed that state-dependent ultrasound neuromodulation of the prefrontal cortex increases rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and protects spatial working memory to REM sleep deprivation. The system will allow explorative studies in brain disease therapeutics and neuromodulation using ultrasound stimulation for widespread clinical adoption.

Postnatal age-differential ASD-like transcriptomic, synaptic, and behavioral deficits in Myt1l-mutant mice.

Myelin transcription factor 1 like (Myt1l), a zinc-finger transcription factor, promotes neuronal differentiation and is implicated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability. However, it remains unclear whether Myt1l promotes neuronal differentiation in vivo and its deficiency in mice leads to disease-related phenotypes. Here, we report that Myt1l-heterozygous mutant (Myt1l-HT) mice display postnatal age-differential ASD-related phenotypes: newborn Myt1l-HT mice, with strong Myt1l expression, show ASD-like transcriptomic changes involving decreased synaptic gene expression and prefrontal excitatory synaptic transmission and altered righting reflex. Juvenile Myt1l-HT mice, with markedly decreased Myt1l expression, display reverse ASD-like transcriptomes, increased prefrontal excitatory transmission, and largely normal behaviors. Adult Myt1l-HT mice show ASD-like transcriptomes involving astrocytic and microglial gene upregulation, increased prefrontal inhibitory transmission, and behavioral deficits. Therefore, Myt1l haploinsufficiency leads to ASD-related phenotypes in newborn mice, which are temporarily normalized in juveniles but re-appear in adults, pointing to continuing phenotypic changes long after a marked decrease of Myt1l expression in juveniles.

Whole-brain perfusion mapping in mice by dynamic BOLD MRI with transient hypoxia.

Non-invasive mapping of cerebral perfusion is critical for understanding neurovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. However, perfusion MRI methods cannot be easily implemented for whole-brain studies in mice because of their small size. To overcome this issue, a transient hypoxia stimulus was applied to induce a bolus of deoxyhemoglobins as an endogenous paramagnetic contrast in blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) MRI. Based on stimulus-duration-dependent studies, 5 s anoxic stimulus was chosen, which induced a decrease in arterial oxygenation to 59%. Dynamic susceptibility changes were acquired with whole-brain BOLD MRI using both all-vessel-sensitive gradient-echo and microvascular-sensitive spin-echo readouts. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral blood volume (CBV) were quantified by modeling BOLD dynamics using a partial-volume-corrected arterial input function. In the mouse under ketamine/xylazine anesthesia, total CBF and CBV were 112.0 ± 15.0 ml/100 g/min and 3.39 ± 0.59 ml/100 g (n = 15 mice), respectively, whereas microvascular CBF and CBV were 85.8 ± 6.9 ml/100 g/min and 2.23 ± 0.27 ml/100 g (n = 7 mice), respectively. Regional total vs. microvascular perfusion metrics were highly correlated but a slight mismatch was observed in the large-vessel areas and cortical depth profiles. Overall, this non-invasive, repeatable, simple hypoxia BOLD-MRI approach is viable for perfusion mapping of rodents.

Role of anterior cingulate cortex inputs to periaqueductal gray for pain avoidance.

Although pain-related excessive fear is known to be a key factor in chronic pain disability, which involves the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), little is known about the downstream circuits of the ACC for fear avoidance in pain processing. Using behavioral experiments and functional magnetic resonance imaging with optogenetics at 15.2 T, we demonstrate that the ACC is a part of the abnormal circuit changes in chronic pain and its downstream circuits are closely related to modulating sensorimotor integration and generating active movement rather than carrying sensory information. The projection from the ACC to the dorsolateral and lateral parts of the periaqueductal gray (dl/lPAG) especially enhances both reflexive and active avoidance behavior toward pain. Collectively, our results indicate that increased signals from the ACC to the dl/lPAG might be critical for excessive fear avoidance in chronic pain disability.

Protocol for mouse optogenetic fMRI at ultrahigh magnetic fields.

Mouse optogenetic functional magnetic resonance imaging (opto-fMRI) is critical for linking genes and functions and for mapping cell-type-specific neural circuits in the whole brain. Herein, we describe how opto-fMRI images can be reliably obtained in anesthetized mice with minimal distortions at ultrahigh magnetic fields. The protocol includes surgical and anesthesia procedures, animal cradle modification, animal preparation and setup, animal physiology maintenance, and pilot fMRI scanning. This protocol will enable reproducible mouse opto-fMRI experiments. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Jung et al. (2021),1 Jung et al. (2022),2 and Moon et al. (2021).3.

Development of a new advanced animal cradle for small animal multiple imaging modalities: acquisition and evaluation of high-throughput multiple-mouse imaging.

The physiological conditions of small animals are an essential component to be considered when acquiring images for pre-clinical studies, and they play a vital role in the overall results of a study. However, several previous studies did not consider these conditions. In this study, a new animal cradle that can be modified and adjusted to suit multiple imaging modalities such as positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was developed. Unlike previous cradles where only one mouse can be imaged at a time, a total of four mice can be imaged simultaneously using this new cradle. Additionally, fusion images with high-throughput multiple-mouse imaging (MMI) of PET/MRI and PET/CT images can be acquired using this newly developed cradle. The dynamic brain images were also acquired simultaneously by applying PET dynamic imaging technology to high-throughput MMI methods. The results of this study suggest that the newly developed small animal cradle can be widely used in pre-clinical studies.

Characterization of brain-wide somatosensory BOLD fMRI in mice under dexmedetomidine/isoflurane and ketamine/xylazine.

Mouse fMRI under anesthesia has become increasingly popular due to improvement in obtaining brain-wide BOLD response. Medetomidine with isoflurane has become well-accepted for resting-state fMRI, but whether this combination allows for stable, expected, and robust brain-wide evoked response in mice has yet to be validated. We thus utilized intravenous infusion of dexmedetomidine with inhaled isoflurane and intravenous infusion of ketamine/xylazine to elucidate whether stable mouse physiology and BOLD response are obtainable in response to simultaneous forepaw and whisker-pad stimulation throughout 8 h. We found both anesthetics result in hypercapnia with depressed heart rate and respiration due to self-breathing, but these values were stable throughout 8 h. Regardless of the mouse condition, brain-wide, robust, and stable BOLD response throughout the somatosensory axis was observed with differences in sensitivity and dynamics. Dexmedetomidine/isoflurane resulted in fast, boxcar-like, BOLD response with consistent hemodynamic shapes throughout the brain. Ketamine/xylazine response showed higher sensitivity, prolonged BOLD response, and evidence for cortical disinhibition as significant bilateral cortical response was observed. In addition, differing hemodynamic shapes were observed between cortical and subcortical areas. Overall, we found both anesthetics are applicable for evoked mouse fMRI studies.

Stem cell restores thalamocortical plasticity to rescue cognitive deficit in neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage.

Severe neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) patients incur long-term neurologic deficits such as cognitive disabilities. Recently, the intraventricular transplantation of allogeneic human umbilical cord blood-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) has drawn attention as a therapeutic potential to treat severe IVH. However, its pathological synaptic mechanism is still elusive. We here demonstrated that the integration of the somatosensory input was significantly distorted by suppressing feed-forward inhibition (FFI) at the thalamocortical (TC) inputs in the barrel cortices of neonatal rats with IVH by using BOLD-fMRI signal and brain slice patch-clamp technique. This is induced by the suppression of Hebbian plasticity via an increase in tumor necrosis factor-α expression during the critical period, which can be effectively reversed by the transplantation of MSCs. Furthermore, we showed that MSC transplantation successfully rescued IVH-induced learning deficits in the sensory-guided decision-making in correlation with TC FFI in the layer 4 barrel cortex.

Early fMRI responses to somatosensory and optogenetic stimulation reflect neural information flow.

Blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been widely used to localize brain functions. To further advance understanding of brain functions, it is critical to understand the direction of information flow, such as thalamocortical versus corticothalamic projections. For this work, we performed ultrahigh spatiotemporal resolution fMRI at 15.2 T of the mouse somatosensory network during forepaw somatosensory stimulation and optogenetic stimulation of the primary motor cortex (M1). Somatosensory stimulation induced the earliest BOLD response in the ventral posterolateral nucleus (VPL), followed by the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) and then M1 and posterior thalamic nucleus. Optogenetic stimulation of excitatory neurons in M1 induced the earliest BOLD response in M1, followed by S1 and then VPL. Within S1, the middle cortical layers responded to somatosensory stimulation earlier than the upper or lower layers, whereas the upper cortical layers responded earlier than the other two layers to optogenetic stimulation in M1. The order of early BOLD responses was consistent with the canonical understanding of somatosensory network connections and cannot be explained by regional variabilities in the hemodynamic response functions measured using hypercapnic stimulation. Our data demonstrate that early BOLD responses reflect the information flow in the mouse somatosensory network, suggesting that high-field fMRI can be used for systems-level network analyses.

Excitatory neuronal CHD8 in the regulation of neocortical development and sensory-motor behaviors.

CHD8 (chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 8) is a chromatin remodeler associated with autism spectrum disorders. Homozygous Chd8 deletion in mice leads to embryonic lethality, making it difficult to assess whether CHD8 regulates brain development and whether CHD8 haploinsufficiency-related macrocephaly reflects normal CHD8 functions. Here, we report that homozygous conditional knockout of Chd8 restricted to neocortical glutamatergic neurons causes apoptosis-dependent near-complete elimination of neocortical structures. These mice, however, display normal survival and hyperactivity, anxiolytic-like behavior, and increased social interaction. They also show largely normal auditory function and moderately impaired visual and motor functions but enhanced whisker-related somatosensory function. These changes accompany thalamic hyperactivity, revealed by 15.2-Tesla fMRI, and increased intrinsic excitability and decreased inhibitory synaptic transmission in thalamic ventral posterior medial (VPM) neurons involved in somatosensation. These results suggest that excitatory neuronal CHD8 critically regulates neocortical development through anti-apoptotic mechanisms, neocortical elimination distinctly affects cognitive behaviors and sensory-motor functions in mice, and Chd8 haploinsufficiency-related macrocephaly might represent compensatory responses.

Tannic acid-functionalized boron nitride nanosheets for theranostics.

Here, we report a tannic acid-Fe3+ coordination complex coating that confers magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) theranostic properties to inert nanomaterials. Boron nitride nanosheets (BNS), which lack magnetic field and light responsiveness, were used as a model nonfunctional nanomaterial. Among various catechol derivatives tested (i.e., dopamine, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, gallic acid, and tannic acid), a coating of tannic acid-Fe3+ coordination complex provided the highest magnetic field relaxivity and near infrared (NIR) laser light responsiveness. An in vitro study showed that KB tumor cells treated with tannic acid-Fe3+ coordination complex adsorbed on BNS (TA-Fe/BNS) exhibited higher T1-weighted magnetic resonance contrast compared with plain BNS, and BNS coated with tannic acid or Fe alone. NIR irradiation at 808 nm caused a significant increase in KB tumor cell death after treatment with TA-Fe/BNS compared with other treatments. In vivo MRI imaging revealed tumor accumulation of intravenously administered TA-Fe/BNS. Guided by MRI information, application of focused laser irradiation onto tumor tissues resulted in complete tumor ablation. These results support the potential of TA-Fe/BNS for MRI theranostics. Moreover, this study suggests the wide applicability of TA-Fe noncovalent coating as biocompatible and facile tool for converting nonfunctional early-generation nanomaterials into functional new nanomaterials, opening new opportunities for their use in translational biomedical applications such as MRI theranostics.