Tissue Distribution of Mercury in the Bodies of Wild American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) from a Coastal Marsh in Louisiana (USA).

Total mercury (THg) concentrations were measured in wild alligators inhabiting a coastal marsh in southern Louisiana, to determine the tissue distribution of THg among various body organs and tissue compartments. Concentrations of THg in claws and dermal tail scutes were compared to those in blood, brain, gonad, heart, kidney, liver, and skeletal muscle to determine if the former tissues, commonly available by non-lethal sampling, could be used as measures of body burdens in various internal organs. Mercury was found in all body organs and tissue compartments. However, overall, THg concentrations measured in alligators were below the FDA action level for fish consumption and were comparable to previous data reported from southwestern Louisiana. Our results suggest consumption of meat from alligators found in this region may be of little public health concern. However, the extended period of time between sampling (in this study) and the present-day highlight the need for continuous, additional, and more recent sampling to ensure consumer safety. Total mercury concentrations were highest in the kidney (3.18 ± 0.69 mg/kg dw) and liver (3.12 ± 0.76 mg/kg dw). THg levels in non-lethal samples (blood, claws, and dermal tail scutes) were positively correlated with all tissue THg concentrations (blood: R2 = 0.513-0.988; claw: R2 = 0.347-0.637, scutes: R2 = 0.333-0.649). Because THg concentrations from blood, claws, and scutes were correlated with those of the internal organs, non-lethal sampling methods may be a viable method of estimating levels of THg in other body tissues.

Multiple Lines of Evidences Reveal Mechanisms Underpinning Mercury Resistance and Volatilization by Stenotrophomonas sp. MA5 Isolated from the Savannah River Site (SRS), USA.

A largely understudied microbially mediated mercury (Hg) bioremediative pathway includes the volatilization of Hg2+ to Hg°. Therefore, studies on Hg resistant bacteria (HgR), isolated from historically long-term contaminated environments, can serve as models to understand mechanisms underpinning Hg cycling. Towards this end, a mercury resistant bacterial strain, identified as Stenotrophomonas sp., strain MA5, was isolated from Mill Branch on the Savannah River Site (SRS); an Hg-impacted ecosystem. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) analysis showed Hg resistance of up to 20 µg/mL by MA5 with 95% of cells retaining viability. Microcosm studies showed that the strain depleted more than 90% of spiked Hg2+ within the first 24 h of growth and the detection of volatilized mercury indicated that the strain was able to reduce Hg2+ to Hg°. To understand molecular mechanisms of Hg volatilization, a draft whole genome sequence was obtained, annotated and analyzed, which revealed the presence of a transposon-derived mer operon (merRTPADE) in MA5, known to transport and reduce Hg2+ into Hg°. Based on the whole genome sequence of strain MA5, qRT-PCR assays were designed on merRTPADE, we found a ~40-fold higher transcription of merT, P, A, D and E when cells were exposed to 5 µg/mL Hg2+. Interestingly, strain MA5 increased cellular size as a function of increasing Hg concentrations, which is likely an evolutionary response mechanism to cope with Hg stress. Moreover, metal contaminated environments are shown to co-select for antibiotic resistance. When MA5 was screened for antibiotic resistance, broad resistance against penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, ampicillin, rifampicin, and erythromycin was found; this correlated with the presence of multiple gene determinants for antibiotic resistance within the whole genome sequence of MA5. Overall, this study provides an in-depth understanding of the underpinnings of Stenotrophomonas-mercury interactions that facilitate cellular survival in a contaminated soil habitat.

Bacterial-facilitated uranium transport in the presence of phytate at Savannah River Site.

At the Department of Energy (DOE) managed Savannah River Site (SRS), uranium and other heavy metals continue to pose threats to the ecosystem health and processes. In the oxic soil of this site, uranium is present primarily as soluble salts of the uranyl ion (i.e., U(VI) or UO22+). Although UO22+ has a strong sorption to the soil, the mobile indigenous bacteria may facilitate its transport. On the contrary, precipitation of UO22+ with phosphate has been found to be an alternative remediation strategy. This research investigated the effects of mobile bacteria and phytate on UO22+ transport at SRS in column experiments. It was discovered that UO22+ can barely be mobilized by de-ionized water but can be significantly transported with the aid of mobile indigenous bacteria. UO22+ had the most facilitated transport observation when it reached equilibrium with the bacteria before the transport. When UO22+ and bacterial were introduced to the soil at the same time or UO22+ was pre-deposited in the soil, the facilitated transport was less pronounced. In the presence of phytate, bacterial-facilitated UO22+ transport was hindered. pH was found to play the key role for UO22+ immobilization in the presence of phytate. The immobilization of UO22+ with the addition of phytate increased with the increase of pH within the pH range of this study because of the impact of pH on the solubility of UO2(OH)2. Phytate promoted UO2--PO43- complex and/or [Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2] formation, leading to enhanced UO22+ immobilization in the SRS soil.

Impacts of Long-Term Irrigation of Domestic Treated Wastewater on Soil Biogeochemistry and Bacterial Community Structure.

Freshwater scarcity and regulations on wastewater disposal have necessitated the reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) for soil irrigation, which has several environmental and economic benefits. However, TWW irrigation can cause nutrient loading to the receiving environments. We assessed bacterial community structure and associated biogeochemical changes in soil plots irrigated with nitrate-rich TWW (referred to as pivots) for periods ranging from 13 to 30 years. Soil cores (0 to 40 cm) were collected in summer and winter from five irrigated pivots and three adjacently located nonirrigated plots. Total bacterial and denitrifier gene abundances were estimated by quantitative PCR (qPCR), and community structure was assessed by 454 massively parallel tag sequencing (MPTS) of small-subunit (SSU) rRNA genes along with terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis of nirK, nirS, and nosZ functional genes responsible for denitrification of the TWW-associated nitrate. Soil physicochemical analyses showed that, regardless of the seasons, pH and moisture contents (MC) were higher in the irrigated (IR) pivots than in the nonirrigated (NIR) plots; organic matter (OM) and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) were higher as a function of season but not of irrigation treatment. MPTS analysis showed that TWW loading resulted in the following: (i) an increase in the relative abundance of Proteobacteria, especially Betaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria; (ii) a decrease in the relative abundance of Actinobacteria; (iii) shifts in the communities of acidobacterial groups, along with a shift in the nirK and nirS denitrifier guilds as shown by T-RFLP analysis. Additionally, bacterial biomass estimated by genus/group-specific real-time qPCR analyses revealed that higher numbers of total bacteria, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, and the nirS denitrifier guilds were present in the IR pivots than in the NIR plots. Identification of the nirK-containing microbiota as a proxy for the denitrifier community indicated that bacteria belonged to alphaproteobacteria from the Rhizobiaceae family within the agroecosystem studied. Multivariate statistical analyses further confirmed some of the above soil physicochemical and bacterial community structure changes as a function of long-term TWW application within this agroecosystem.

Precipitation influences on uptake of a global pollutant by a coastal avian species.

Climatic variation, including precipitation amounts and timing, has been linked to abundance and breeding success of many avian species. Less studied, but also of significance, is the consequence of climatic variability on the exposure and uptake of nutrients and contaminants by wildlife. The authors examined mercury (Hg) concentrations in nestling wood stork feathers in a coastal setting over a 16-yr period to understand the influence of rainfall amounts on Hg transfer by parental provisioning relative to habitat use, assuming differential bioavailability of Hg within freshwater and saltwater habitat types. Coastal Hg uptake by stork nestlings was linked to freshwater habitat use, as indicated by stable carbon isotope (δ(13)C) analyses. Cumulative rainfall amounts exceeding 220 cm in the 23 mo preceding the breeding seasons resulted in greater use of freshwater wetlands as foraging habitat and greater Hg accumulation by nestling storks.

A survey of deepwater horizon (DWH) oil-degrading bacteria from the Eastern oyster biome and its surrounding environment.

The deepwater horizon (DWH) accident led to the release of an estimated 794,936,474 L of crude oil into the northern Gulf of Mexico over an 85 day period in 2010, resulting in the contamination of the Gulf of Mexico waters, sediments, permeable beach sands, coastal wetlands, and marine life. This study examines the potential response of the Eastern oyster's microbiome to hydrocarbon contamination and compares it with the bacterial community responses observed from the overlaying water column (WC) and the oyster bed sediments. For this purpose, microcosms seeded with DWH crude oil were established and inoculated separately with oyster tissue (OT), mantle fluid (MF), overlaying WC, and sediments (S) collected from Apalachicola Bay, FL, USA. Shifts in the microbial community structure in the amended microcosms was monitored over a 3-month period using automated ribosomal intergenic spacer region analysis, which showed that the microbiome of the OT and MF were more similar to the sediment communities than those present in the overlaying WC. This pattern remained largely consistent, regardless of the concentration of crude oil or the enrichment period. Additionally, 72 oil-degrading bacteria were isolated from the microcosms containing OT, MF, WC, and S and identified using 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing and compared by principal component analysis, which clearly showed that the WC isolates were different to those identified from the sediment. Conversely, the OT and MF isolates clustered together; a strong indication that the oyster microbiome is uniquely structured relative to its surrounding environment. When selected isolates from the OT, MF, WC, and S were assessed for their oil-degrading potential, we found that the DWH oil was biodegraded between 12 and 42%, under the existing conditions.

Microbial and geochemical assessment of bauxitic un-mined and post-mined chronosequence soils from Mocho Mountains, Jamaica.

Microorganisms are very sensitive to environmental change and can be used to gauge anthropogenic impacts and even predict restoration success of degraded environments. Here, we report assessment of bauxite mining activities on soil biogeochemistry and microbial community structure using un-mined and three post-mined sites in Jamaica. The post-mined soils represent a chronosequence, undergoing restoration since 1987, 1997, and 2007. Soils were collected during dry and wet seasons and analyzed for pH, organic matter (OM), total carbon (TC), nitrogen (TN), and phosphorus. The microbial community structure was assessed through quantitative PCR and massively parallel bacterial ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequencing. Edaphic factors and microbial community composition were analyzed using multivariate statistical approaches and revealed a significant, negative impact of mining on soil that persisted even after greater than 20 years of restoration. Seasonal fluctuations contributed to variation in measured soil properties and community composition, but they were minor in comparison to long-term effects of mining. In both seasons, post-mined soils were higher in pH but OM, TC, and TN decreased. Bacterial rRNA gene analyses demonstrated a general decrease in diversity in post-mined soils and up to a 3-log decrease in rRNA gene abundance. Community composition analyses demonstrated that bacteria from the Proteobacteria (α, ß, γ, δ), Acidobacteria, and Firmicutes were abundant in all soils. The abundance of Firmicutes was elevated in newer post-mined soils relative to the un-mined soil, and this contrasted a decrease, relative to un-mined soils, in proteobacterial and acidobacterial rRNA gene abundances. Our study indicates long-lasting impacts of mining activities to soil biogeochemical and microbial properties with impending loss in soil productivity.

Mercury concentrations in nestling wading birds relative to diet in the southeastern United States: a stable isotope analysis.

Mercury (Hg) is a ubiquitous environmental contaminant that is transferred trophically through aquatic and terrestrial food webs. To better understand the routes of Hg uptake in organisms that rely on both aquatic and terrestrial food resources, we analyzed feather and down samples from nestling wading birds of varying trophic positions in both inland and coastal colonies. We used stable nitrogen and carbon isotope analyses to evaluate trophic positions of individual species (δ(15)N) and differences in foraging habitat use (δ(13)C). Inland, aquatic species had higher trophic status than the single terrestrial species examined, and the expected positive relationship between δ(15)N and Hg content of feathers was observed. However, the same was not true for all species from coastal colonies. Feathers from species that primarily consumed saltwater prey were relatively high in δ(15)N value and low in Hg content, which is opposite of the trend expected due to Hg biomagnification in food chains. In contrast, coastal species foraging in freshwater or a combination of freshwater and saltwater habitats displayed greater Hg contents in feathers. The apparent differential use of the two aquatic systems (freshwater and saltwater) in coastal environments by wading bird species results in variations in δ(15)N values and Hg contents in nestling feathers not found in species associated with only freshwater systems.

A transgenic strain of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a biomonitor for heavy metal contamination.

Metallothionein (MT), a protein involved in metal regulation and detoxification, has been used widely as a biomarker of metal exposure. In the present study, a transgenic strain of the free-living soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was developed using the C. elegans MT-2 (mtl-2) promoter to control the transcription of green fluorescence protein (GFP) reporter. Response of this transgenic system to Cd, Hg, Cu, Zn, Ni, Pb, and As exposure in aquatic media was tested by quantifying GFP expression after 24 h of exposure. Response in Cd-spiked soil was tested in a similar manner. The mtl-2 transcription also was measured using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction to gain a mechanistic understanding of the transgene expression. Green fluorescence protein is induced by Cd, Hg, Cu, and Zn in a time- and concentration-dependent manner; mtl-2 transcription is consistent with the GFP response. The minimum concentrations of Cd, Hg, Cu, and Zn that induce GFP response are 2- to 1000-fold lower than concentrations affecting traditional endpoints, such as lethality or behavioral change. The system responds to Cd in soil in a similar manner. Neither Ni nor Pb induces GFP, and neither induces mtl-2 transcription. Arsenic does not induce GFP, yet an increase in mtl-2 transcription was found, suggesting that As may interfere with GFP signaling. This mtl-2::GFP transgenic bioassay represents an alternative approach to quantify, both easily and quickly, a surrogate of MT in response to metal exposure (e.g., Cd, Hg, Cu, and Zn) in a variety of environments and potentially may be used for quantitative or semiquantitativebiomonitoring of metal contamination in soils and aquatic systems.

Transgenic lambda medaka as a new model for germ cell mutagenesis.

To address the need for improved approaches to study mutations transmitted to progeny from mutagen-exposed parents, we evaluated lambda transgenic medaka, a small fish that carries the cII mutation target gene, as a new model for germ cell mutagenesis. Mutations in the cII gene in progeny derived from ethyl-nitrosourea (ENU)-exposed males were readily detected. Frequencies of mutant offspring, proportions of mosaic or whole body mutant offspring, and mutational spectra differed according to germ cell stage exposed to ENU. Postmeiotic germ cells (spermatozoa/late spermatids) generated a higher frequency of mutant offspring (11%) compared to premeiotic germ cells (3.5%). Individuals with cII mutant frequencies (MF) elevated more than threefold above the spontaneous MF (3 x 10(-5)) in the range of 10(-4) to 10(-3) were mosaic mutant offspring, whereas those with MFs approaching 1 x 10(-2) were whole body mutant offspring. Mosaic mutant offspring comprised the majority of mutant offspring derived from postmeiotic germ cells, and unexpectedly, from spermatogonial stem cells. Mutational spectra comprised of two different mutations, but at identical sites were unusual and characteristic of delayed mutations, in which fixation of a second mutation was delayed following fertilization. Delayed mutations and prevalence of mosaic mutant offspring add to growing evidence that implicates germ cells in mediating processes postfertilization that contribute to genomic instability in progeny. This model provides an efficient and sensitive approach to assess germ cell mutations, expands opportunities to increase understanding of fundamental mechanisms of mutagenesis, and provides a means for improved assessment of potential genetic health risks.

Using trace element concentrations in Corbicula fluminea to identify potential sources of contamination in an urban river.

We used the biomonitor, Corbicula fluminea, to investigate the contributions of trace elements associated with different point sources and land uses in a large river. Trace elements were analyzed in tissues of clams collected from 15 tributary streams draining five land use or point source types: agriculture, forest, urban, coal-fired power plant (CFPP), and wastewater (WWTP). Clams from forested catchments had elevated Hg concentrations, and concentrations of arsenic and selenium were highest (5.0+/-0.2 and 13.6+/-0.9 microg g(-1) dry mass (DM), respectively) in clams from CFPP sites. Cadmium concentrations were significantly higher in clams from urban and CFPP sites (4.1+/-0.2 and 3.6+/-0.9 microg g(-1) DM, respectively). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS) of tissue concentrations in clams clustered at CFPP and forest/agriculture sites at opposite ends of the ordination space, and the distribution of sites was driven by Cu, Zn, Cd, and Hg.

Coselection for microbial resistance to metals and antibiotics in freshwater microcosms.

Bacterial resistances to diverse metals and antibiotics are often genetically linked, suggesting that exposure to toxic metals may select for strains resistant to antibiotics and vice versa. To test the hypothesis that resistances to metals and antibiotics are coselected for in environmental microbial assemblages, we investigated the frequency of diverse resistances in freshwater microcosms amended with Cd, Ni, ampicillin or tetracycline. We found that all four toxicants significantly increased the frequency of bacterioplankton resistance to multiple, chemically unrelated metals and antibiotics. An ampicillin-resistant strain of the opportunistic human pathogen Ralstonia mannitolilytica was enriched in microcosms amended with Cd. Frequencies of antibiotic resistance were elevated in microcosms with metal concentrations representative of industry and mining-impacted environments (0.01-1 mM). Metal but not antibiotic amendments decreased microbial diversity, and a weeklong exposure to high concentrations of ampicillin (0.01-10 mg l-1) and tetracycline (0.03-30 mg l-1) decreased microbial abundance only slightly, implying a large reservoir of antibiotic resistance in the studied environment. Our results provide first experimental evidence that the exposure of freshwater environments to individual metals and antibiotics selects for multiresistant microorganisms, including opportunistic human pathogens.

Biological half-life and oxidative stress effects in mice with low-level, oral exposure to tritium.

Tritium ((3)H) may enter the environment from human activities, particularly at production, processing, or waste storage sites such as the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site, a former nuclear production facility in South Carolina. Understanding the dynamics and potential adverse effects of tritium in exposed organisms is critical to evaluating risks of tritium releases at such sites. Previous studies estimated the biological half-life of tritium in mice to be approximately 1.13 d; however, these laboratory studies were not conducted under environmentally realistic conditions. In this study, designed to be more representative of environmental exposure, mice were allowed to drink water containing tritium (activity about 300 Bq/ml) for a period of 2 wk. The induction of oxidative stress from tritium exposure was evaluated by comparing the activities of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase) in exposed and control mice. From this experiment, the biological half-life of tritium was determined to be 2.26 +/- 0.04 d, almost double previous estimates. While positive controls (x-ray irradiated mice) showed responses in antioxidant enzyme activity, there was no indication of oxidative stress induction in mice exposed to tritium at this concentration.

Elevated microbial tolerance to metals and antibiotics in metal-contaminated industrial environments.

To test the hypothesis that industrial metal contaminants select for microorganisms tolerant to unrelated agents, such as antibiotics, we analyzed metal and antibiotic tolerance patterns in microbial communities in the intake and discharge of ash settling basins (ASBs) of three coal-fired power plants. High-throughput flow-cytometric analyses using cell viability probes were employed to determine tolerances of entire bacterioplankton communities, avoiding bias toward culturable versus nonculturable bacteria. We found that bacterioplankton collected in ASB discharges were significantly more tolerant to metal and antibiotic exposures than bacterioplankton collected in ASB intakes. Optical properties of microorganisms collected in ASB discharges indicated no defensive physiological adaptations such as formation of resting stages or excessive production of exopolymers. Thus, it is likely that the elevated frequency of metal and antibiotic tolerances in bacterioplankton in ASB discharges were caused by shifts in microbial community composition, resulting from the selective pressure imposed by elevated metal concentrations or organic toxicants present in ASBs.

Shifts in relative tissue delta15N values in snowy egret nestlings with dietary mercury exposure: a marker for increased protein degradation.

Shifts in tissue nitrogen isotope composition may be a more sensitive general indicator of stress than measurement of high-turnover defensive biomolecules such as metallothionein and glutathione. As a physical resource transmitted along the trophic web, perturbations in protein nitrogen metabolism may also help resolve issues concerning the effects of contaminants on organisms and their consequential hierarchical linkages in ecotoxicology. Snowy egret nestlings (Egretta thula) fed mercury-contaminated diets of constant nitrogen isotope composition exhibited increased relative delta15N values in whole liver (p = 0.0011) and the acid-soluble fraction (ASF) of the liver (p = 0.0005) when compared to nestlings fed a reference diet. When nitrogen isotope data were adjusted for the source term of the diet, liver mercury concentrations corresponded with both whole liver relative 15N enrichment (r2 = 0.79, slope 0.009, p < 0.0001) and relative 15N enrichment in the acid-soluble fraction of the liver (r2 = 0.85, slope 0.026, p < 0.0001). Meanwhile, significant differences were not observed in hepatic levels of the metal-binding peptides metallothionein and glutathione despite a nearly 3-fold difference in liver mercury content. Because increases in tissue delta15N values result from increased rates of protein breakdown relative to synthesis, we propose that the increased relative liver delta15N values reflect a shift in protein metabolism. The relationship between ASF and mercury was significantly stronger (p < 0.0001) than that for whole liver, suggesting that the relationship is driven by an increase in bodily derived amino acids in the acid-soluble, free amino acid pool.

Rodents as receptor species at a tritium disposal site.

New methods are being employed on the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site to deal with the disposal of tritium, including the irrigation of a hardwood/pine forest with tritiated water from an intercepted contaminant plume to reduce concentrations of tritium outcropping into Fourmile Branch, a tributary of the Savannah River. The use of this system has proven to be an effective means of tritium disposal. To evaluate the impact of this activity on terrestrial biota, rodent species were captured on the tritium disposal site and a control site during two trapping seasons in order to assess tritium exposure resulting from the forest irrigation. Control site mice had background levels of tritium, 0.02 Bq/mL, with disposal site mice having significantly higher tritium concentrations, mean=34.86 Bq/mL. Whole body tritium concentrations of the mice captured at the disposal site were positively correlated with tritium application and negatively correlated with precipitation at the site.

Adverse effects of ecologically relevant dietary mercury exposure in southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala) larvae.

Southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala) larvae were exposed to experimental diets supplemented with aufwuchs from control and mercury-enriched mesocosms combined in proportions intended to mimic mercury concentrations and speciation in aufwuchs observed from aquatic systems contaminated by atmospheric deposition. Observations on rates of mortality, malformation, and larval growth and development were made for 254 d. Increased incidence of mortality, malformation, and changes in growth and development were observed at concentrations that reflect the highest concentrations expected in the amphibian diet from atmospheric deposition (1,500-3,300 ng Hg/g dry wt). The results of this study are probably more ecologically realistic than results obtained from previous studies of aqueous mercury toxicity and suggest that dietary mercury exposure in habitats contaminated primarily by atmospheric deposition has the potential to cause adverse effects in amphibian larvae.

Dietary mercury exposure and bioaccumulation in southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala) larvae.

Aufwuchs was collected from three reservoirs, a constructed wetland used for groundwater treatment, and mercury (Hg)-enriched mesocosms to examine the relationship between inorganic Hg and methylmercury concentrations in the diet of tadpoles. Four diets were then formulated with Hg-enriched aufwuchs to concentrations that bracketed those of Hg observed in aufwuchs from the field and reported in the literature from sites contaminated by atmospheric deposition. The diets were fed to southern leopard frog tadpoles in the laboratory for the entire larval period (60-254 d). Metamorphs and tadpoles were analyzed for inorganic Hg and methylmercury contents by gas chromatography-cold-vapor atomic fluorescence spectrophotometry. Methylmercury concentration increased with total Hg concentration in aufwuchs, but the proportion of methylmercury to inorganic Hg decreased with increasing total Hg concentration. In the feeding experiment, there was an inverse relationship between Hg exposure concentration and the bioaccumulation factor for each Hg species. We concluded that neither methylmercury nor inorganic Hg in aufwuchs is highly bioavailable to tadpoles and that bioaccumulation is not well explained by a simple partitioning model. This suggests that bioaccumulation factors as currently used are not the best predictors of dietary Hg bioaccumulation.

A microscaled mercury saturation assay for metallothionein in fish.

A mercury (Hg) saturation assay for measuring metallothionein (MT) in fish liver was modified by optimizing binding conditions to minimize the mercury and tissue consumed. The revised method uses stable Hg at low concentrations instead of 203Hg. At the reduced Hg concentrations used, MT concentrations in livers homogenized in saline appeared to increase systematically with dilution in both bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). This error suggested a binding limitation due to sulfhydryl oxidation or competition for and removal of mercury by non-MT proteins. Homogenizing tissues in trichloroacetic acid (TCA) eliminated the interference. To further evaluate the method, the protocol was tested in the laboratory and field. Metallothionein in bluegill injected with 0.6 mg/kg zinc chloride increased at a rate of 0.03 nmole MT/g liver/h (r2 = 0.53, p = 0.001). Linearity improved when data were corrected for protein content (r2 = 0.74, p < 0.0001). Metallothionein levels in bluegill from a coal ash-contaminated environment were significantly increased over that of hatchery-reared sunfish (F = 20.17, p = 0.0003). The microscaled procedure minimizes concerns related to radioisotope use and waste generation while retaining the high sensitivity of the 203Hg assay.

Relationships between mercury body concentrations, standard metabolic rate, and body mass in eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) from three experimental populations.

Eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) were sampled from three experimental populations (two Hg-exposed populations and one reference population) to determine whether transgenerational exposure (lifelong exposure of multiple generations) to Hg adversely affects standard metabolic rate (SMR). Mosquitofish subjected to lifelong Hg exposure accumulated significant concentrations of Hg in their tissues compared to fish from the reference population (mean: 3.89-4.13 vs 0.08 microHg/g wet mass, respectively). Less than 10% of the variability in Hg tissue concentrations could be explained by fish body mass, likely because of the short life span and/or dietary habits of this species. Despite the high body burdens of Hg in exposed fish, we found no significant difference in SMR among individuals from Hg-exposed or reference populations. Our findings contrast recent laboratory work describing elevated SMR in mosquitofish exposed to 100 microg/L dissolved inorganic Hg for 48 h. To account for contrasting results between studies, we hypothesize that acute exposure to dissolved inorganic Hg damages gill epithelium, resulting in increased metabolic rate, but that lifelong Hg exposure via trophic uptake of methyl mercury does not affect fish respiratory structures. Alternative hypotheses include the possibility that G. holbrooki is a species that can tolerate high body burdens of Hg or that more than four years of genetic isolation during Hg exposure (8-12 generations) resulted in selection for Hg-tolerant or -resistant individuals.