Ruthenium-based Photoactive Metalloantibiotics.

Antibiotic resistance is one of the world's most urgent public health problems. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) is a promising therapy to combat the growing threat of antibiotic resistance. The aPDT combines a photosensitizer and light to generate reactive oxygen species to induce bacterial inactivation. Ruthenium polypyridyl complexes are significant because they possess unique photophysical properties that allow them to produce reactive oxygen species upon photoirradiation, which leads to cytotoxicity. These antimicrobial agents cause bacterial cell death by DNA and cytoplasmic membrane damage. This article presents a comprehensive review of photoactive antimicrobial properties of kinetically inert and labile ruthenium complexes, nanoparticles coupled photoactive ruthenium complexes, and photoactive ruthenium nanoparticles. Additionally, limitations of current ruthenium-based photoactive antimicrobial agents and future directions for the development of antibiotic-resistant photoactive antimicrobial agents are discussed. It is important to raise awareness for the ruthenium-based aPDT agents in order to develop a new class of photoactive metalloantibiotics capable of combating antibiotic resistance.

The role of a dipeptide outer-coordination sphere on H2-production catalysts: influence on catalytic rates and electron transfer.

The outer-coordination sphere of enzymes acts to fine-tune the active site reactivity and control catalytic rates, suggesting that incorporation of analogous structural elements into molecular catalysts may be necessary to achieve rates comparable to those observed in enzyme systems at low overpotentials. In this work, we evaluate the effect of an amino acid and dipeptide outer-coordination sphere on [Ni(P(Ph)(2)N(Ph-R)(2))(2)](2+) hydrogen production catalysts. A series of 12 new complexes containing non-natural amino acids or dipeptides was prepared to test the effects of positioning, size, polarity and aromaticity on catalytic activity. The non-natural amino acid was either 3-(meta- or para-aminophenyl)propionic acid terminated as an acid, an ester or an amide. Dipeptides consisted of one of the non-natural amino acids coupled to one of four amino acid esters: alanine, serine, phenylalanine or tyrosine. All of the catalysts are active for hydrogen production, with rates averaging ∼1000 s(-1), 40 % faster than the unmodified catalyst. Structure and polarity of the aliphatic or aromatic side chains of the C-terminal peptide do not strongly influence rates. However, the presence of an amide bond increases rates, suggesting a role for the amide in assisting catalysis. Overpotentials were lower with substituents at the N-phenyl meta position. This is consistent with slower electron transfer in the less compact, para-substituted complexes, as shown in digital simulations of catalyst cyclic voltammograms and computational modeling of the complexes. Combining the current results with insights from previous results, we propose a mechanism for the role of the amino acid and dipeptide based outer-coordination sphere in molecular hydrogen production catalysts.

Investigating the role of the outer-coordination sphere in [Ni(P(Ph)2N(Ph­R)2)2]2+ hydrogenase mimics.

A series of dipeptide substituted nickel complexes with the general formula, [Ni(P(Ph)(2)N(NNA-amino acid/ester)(2))(2)](BF(4))(2), have been synthesized and characterized (P(2)N(2) = 1,5-diaza-3,7-diphosphacyclooctane, and the dipeptide consists of the non-natural amino acid, 3-(4-aminophenyl)propionic acid (NNA), coupled to amino acid/esters = glutamic acid, alanine, lysine, and aspartic acid). Each of these complexes is an active electrocatalyst for H(2) production. The effects of the outer-coordination sphere on the catalytic activity for the production of H(2) were investigated; specifically, the impact of sterics, the ability of the side chain or backbone to protonate and the pK(a) values of the amino acid side chains were studied by varying the amino acids in the dipeptide. The catalytic rates of the different dipeptide substituted nickel complexes varied by over an order of magnitude. The amino acid derivatives display the fastest rates, while esterification of the terminal carboxylic acids and side chains resulted in a decrease in the catalytic rate by 50-70%, implicating a significant role of protonated sites in the outer-coordination sphere on catalytic activity. For both the amino acid and ester derivatives, the complexes with the largest substituents display the fastest rates, indicating that catalytic activity is not hindered by steric bulk. These studies demonstrate the significant contribution that the outer-coordination sphere can have in tuning the catalytic activity of small molecule hydrogenase mimics.

Incorporating peptides in the outer-coordination sphere of bioinspired electrocatalysts for hydrogen production.

Four new cyclic 1,5-diaza-3,7-diphosphacyclooctane ligands have been prepared and used to synthesize [Ni(P(Ph)(2)N(R)(2))(2)](2+) complexes in which R is a mono- or dipeptide. These complexes represent a first step in the development of an outer-coordination sphere for this class of complexes that can mimic the outer-coordination sphere of the active sites of hydrogenase enzymes. Importantly, these complexes retain the electrocatalytic activity of the parent [Ni(P(Ph)(2)N(Ph)(2))(2)](2+) complex in an acetonitrile solution with turnover frequencies for hydrogen production ranging from 14 to 25 s(-1) in the presence of p-cyanoanilinium trifluoromethanesulfonate and from 135 to 1000 s(-1) in the presence of protonated dimethylformamide, with moderately low overpotentials, ∼0.3 V. The addition of small amounts of water results in rate increases of 2-7 times. Unlike the parent complex, these complexes demonstrate dynamic structural transformations in solution. These results establish a building block from which larger peptide scaffolding can be added to allow the [Ni(P(R)(2)N(R')(2))(2)](2+) molecular catalytic core to begin to mimic the multifunctional outer-coordination sphere of enzymes.

Multifunctional DNA interactions of Ru-Pt mixed metal supramolecular complexes with substituted terpyridine ligands.

The coupling of a light absorbing unit to a bioactive site allows for the development of supramolecules with multifunctional interactions with DNA. A series of mixed metal supramolecular complexes that couple a DNA-binding cis-Pt(II)Cl(2) center to a ruthenium chromophore via a polyazine bridging ligand have been prepared, and their DNA interactions have been studied, [(TL)RuCl(dpp)PtCl(2)](PF(6)) (TL = tpy (2,2':6',2''-terpyridine), MePhtpy (4'-(4-methylphenyl)-2,2':6',2''-terpyridine), or (t)Bu(3)tpy (4,4',4''-tri-tert-butyl-2,2':6',2''-terpyridine and dpp = 2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine). This series provides for unique tridentate coordinated Ru(II) systems to photocleave DNA with preassociation with the DNA target via coordination of the Pt(II) center. Electronic absorption spectroscopy of the complexes displays intense ligand-based pi-->pi* transitions in the UV region and metal to ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transitions in the visible region. The Ru(dpi)-->dpp(pi*) MLCT transitions occur at 545 nm, red-shifted relative to the 520 nm maxima for the monometallic synthons, [(TL)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)). The title RuPt complexes display reversible Ru(II/III) oxidative couples at 1.10, 1.10, and 1.01 V vs Ag/AgCl for TL = tpy, MePhtpy, and (t)Bu(3)tpy, respectively. The TL(0/-) reduction occurred at -1.43, -1.44, and -1.59 V vs Ag/AgCl for TL = tpy, MePhtpy, and (t)Bu(3)tpy, respectively. These complexes display a dpp(0/-) couple (-0.50 -0.55, and -0.59 V) significantly shifted to positive potential relative to their monometallic synthons (-1.15, -1.16, and -1.22 V), consistent with the bridging coordination of the dpp ligand. Coupling of (TL)Ru(II)Cl(BL) subunit to a cis-Pt(II)Cl(2) site provides for the application of photochemically inactive Ru(II)(tpy)-based chromophores in DNA photocleavage applications. The [(TL)RuCl(dpp)PtCl(2)](+) complexes display covalent binding to DNA and photocleavage upon irradiation with visible light modulated by TL identity. The redox, spectroscopic, DNA-binding, and photocleavage properties of a series of supramolecular complexes are presented.

DNA interaction studies of tridentate bridged Ru(II)-Pt(II) mixed-metal supramolecules.

Reported herein are studies of the concentration and temperature dependent interactions with DNA of the stereochemically defined mixed-metal supramolecular complexes, [(tpy)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF(6))(3) and [ClPt(tppz)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF(6))(4) (tpy=2,2':6',2''-terpyridine and tppz=2,3,5,6-tetrakis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine). These metal complexes couple a ruthenium based light absorber (LA) to the bioactive platinum sites (BAS) using a tridentate bridging ligand (BL). The complexes exhibit intense Ru-->tppz(pi*) metal to ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transitions in the visible region and adopt a square planar geometry around the Pt(II) center. The effect of incubating these metal complexes with DNA on the subsequent migration of DNA through an agarose gel was found to be more dramatic than that observed for the well known anticancer drug, cis-[Pt(NH(3))(2)Cl(2)] (cisplatin). This effect was enhanced with increased incubation temperature. Unwinding of supercoiled plasmid DNA was found to be more pronounced for the trimetallic complex, [ClPt(tppz)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF(6))(4), than for the bimetallic complex, [(tpy)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF(6))(3).

Design considerations for a system for photocatalytic hydrogen production from water employing mixed-metal photochemical molecular devices for photoinitiated electron collection.

Supramolecular complexes coupling Ru(II) or Os(II) polyazine light absorbers through bridging ligands to Rh(III) or Ir(III) allow the study of factors impacting photoinitiated electron collection and multielectron water reduction to produce hydrogen. The [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpb)}(2)IrCl(2)](PF(6))(5) system represents the first photoinitiated electron collector in a molecular system (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine, dpb = 2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)benzoquinoxaline). The [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)](PF(6))(5) system represents the first photoinitiated electron collector that affords photochemical hydrogen production from water in the presence of an electron donor, N,N-dimethylaniline (dpp = 2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine). The complexes [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)](PF(6))(5), [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)RhBr(2)](PF(6))(5), [{(phen)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)](PF(6))(5), [{(bpy)(2)Os(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)](PF(6))(5), [{(tpy)RuCl(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)](PF(6))(3), [{(tpy)OsCl(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)](PF(6))(3), and [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpb)}(2)IrCl(2)](PF(6))(5) are herein evaluated with respect to their functioning as hydrogen photocatalysts (tpy = 2,2':6',2''-terpyridine, phen = 1,10-phenanthroline). With the exceptions of [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpb)}(2)IrCl(2)](PF(6))(5) and [{(tpy)OsCl(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)](PF(6))(3), all other complexes demonstrate photocatalytic activity. The functioning systems possess a rhodium localized lowest unoccupied molecular orbital that serves as the site of electron collection and a metal-to-ligand charge-transfer ((3)MLCT) and/or metal-to-metal charge-transfer ((3)MMCT) excited-state with sufficient driving force for excited-state reduction by the electron donor. The lack of photocatalytic activity by [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpb)}(2)IrCl(2)](PF(6))(5), although photoinitiated electron collection occurs, establishes the significance of the rhodium center in the photocatalytic system. The lack of photocatalytic activity of [{(tpy)OsCl(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)](PF(6))(3) is attributed to the lower-energy (3)MLCT state that does not possess sufficient driving force for excited-state reduction by the electron donor. The variation of electron donor showed the photocatalysis efficiency to decrease in the order N,N-dimethylaniline > triethylamine > triethanolamine. The general design considerations for development of supramolecular assemblies that function as water reduction photocatalysts are discussed.

Enhanced DNA photocleavage properties of Ru(II) terpyridine complexes upon incorporation of methylphenyl substituted terpyridine and/or the polyazine bridging ligand dpp (2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine).

The heteroleptic complexes, [(MePhtpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)) and [(tpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)), have been synthesized, characterized, and investigated with respect to their photophysical, redox, and DNA photocleavage properties (where MePhtpy=4'-(4-methylphenyl)-2,2':6',2''-terpyridine and dpp=2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine, tpy=2,2':6',2''-terpyridine). The X-ray crystal structure confirms the identity of the new [(MePhtpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)) complex. These heteroleptic complexes were found to photocleave DNA in the presence of oxygen, unlike the previously studied complex, [Ru(tpy)(2)](PF(6))(2). The photophysical, redox, and DNA photocleavage properties of the heteroleptic complexes were compared with those of the homoleptic complexes, [Ru(MePhtpy)(2)](PF(6))(2) and [Ru(tpy)(2)](PF(6))(2). The heteroleptic complexes showed intense metal to ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transition at lower energy ([(MePhtpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)), 522nm; [(tpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)), 516nm) and longer excited state lifetimes as compared to the homoleptic complexes. The [Ru(MePhtpy)(2)](2+) complex was found to photocleave DNA in contrast to [Ru(tpy)(2)](2+). The introduction of a methylphenyl group on the tepyridine ligand not only enhances the (3)MLCT excited state lifetime but also increases the lipophilicity and thereby the DNA binding ability of the molecule. An increase in lipophilicity upon addition of a methylphenyl group on the 2,2':6',2''-terpyridine ligand was confirmed by determination of the partition coefficient ([(MePhtpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)), logP=+1.16; [(tpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)), logP=-1.27). The heteroleptic complexes photocleave DNA more efficiently than the homoleptic complexes, with the greatest activity being observed for the newly prepared [(MePhtpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)) complex.

Photochemical methods to assay DNA photocleavage using supercoiled pUC18 DNA and LED or xenon arc lamp excitation.

Methods for the study of DNA photocleavage are illustrated using a mixed-metal supramolecular complex [{(bpy)(2)Ru(dpp)}(2)RhCl(2)]Cl(5). The methods use supercoiled pUC18 plasmid as a DNA probe and either filtered light from a xenon arc lamp source or monochromatic light from a newly designed, high-intensity light-emitting diode (LED) array. Detailed methods for performing the photochemical experiments and analysis of the DNA photoproduct are delineated. Detailed methods are also given for building an LED array to be used for DNA photolysis experiments. The Xe arc source has a broad spectral range and high light flux. The LEDs have a high-intensity, nearly monochromatic output. Arrays of LEDs have the advantage of allowing tunable, accurate output to multiple samples for high-throughput photochemistry experiments at relatively low cost.

In vivo inhibition of E. coli growth by a Ru(II)/Pt(II) supramolecule [(tpy)RuCl(dpp)PtCl2](PF6).

Supramolecular complexes consisting of ruthenium chromophores and a cisplatin unit represent an emerging class of bioactive molecules of interest as anti-cancer agents. Although the ability of Ru(II)/Pt(II) heteronuclear complexes to bind to DNA has been demonstrated, the in vivo activity of these complexes has not yet been reported. In the present work, we report the anti-bacterial activity of the complex [(tpy)RuCl(dpp)PtCl(2)](PF(6)) (where dpp=2,3-bis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine, tpy=2,2':6',2''-terpyridine). The impact on bacterial cell growth of exposure to different concentrations of [(tpy)RuCl(dpp)PtCl(2)](PF(6)) and cisplatin was studied. The bioactivity of this complex was found to be due to the presence of the cis-PtCl(2) moiety, as the monometallic synthon [(tpy)RuCl(dpp)](PF(6)) did not inhibit bacterial cell growth.