Assessing the Impact of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Immunization Schedule Change From 3+0 to 2+1 in Australian Children: A Retrospective Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: In mid-2018, the Australian childhood 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine schedule changed from 3+0 to 2+1, moving the third dose to 12 months of age, to address increasing breakthrough cases of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), predominantly in children aged >12 months. This study assessed the impact of this change using national IPD surveillance data. METHODS: Pre- and postschedule change 3-dose 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine breakthrough cases were compared by age group, serotype, and clinical syndrome. Annual rates of breakthrough cases were calculated (per 100 000) using respective birth cohort sizes and 3-dose vaccine coverage. Using time-series modelling, observed IPD rates in children aged <12 years were compared to that expected if the 3+0 schedule were continued. FINDINGS: Over 2012-2022, rate of 3-dose breakthrough cases in children aged >12 months was 2.8 per 100 000 (n = 557; 11 birth cohorts). Serotype 3 replaced 19A as predominant breakthrough serotype (respectively, 24% and 65% in 2013 to 60% and 20% in 2022) followed by 19F. In breakthrough cases, the most frequent clinical phenotype was bacteremic pneumonia (69%), with meningitis accounting for 3%-4%. In cohorts eligible for 2+1 versus 3+0 schedules, rate of breakthrough cases was lower for all vaccine serotypes, except type 3 (incidence rate ratio, 0.50 [95% confidence interval, .28-.84] and 1.12 [0.71-1.76], respectively). Observed compared to expected IPD was 51.7% lower (95% confidence interval, -60.9 to -40.7%) for vaccine serotypes, but the change for nonvaccine types was not significant 12% (-9.6 to 39.7). INTERPRETATIONS: The 2+1 schedule is likely superior to 3+0 for overall IPD control, a finding that may be worth consideration for other countries considering or using 3+0 PCV schedules.

ATAGI targeted review 2023: Vaccination for preventing influenza in Australia.

Abstract: Annual seasonal influenza epidemics cause substantial disease and economic burden worldwide. During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in 2020 and 2021, influenza activity significantly declined. However, influenza resurged in Australia following the relaxation of non-pharmaceutical interventions, with increased influenza virus circulation in early 2022 coinciding with the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2 variant wave. Together with other respiratory virus diseases, these disease impacts on the Australian population and healthcare system have re-emphasised the importance of influenza vaccination and control. We aim to provide an overview of the current seasonal influenza vaccination program in Australia and summarise evidence and considerations underpinning potential future immunisation strategies. Influenza causes disproportionately higher morbidity and mortality in young children and older adults. Other populations at elevated risk from influenza include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, pregnant women, and people with certain underlying medical conditions. All Australians aged ≥ 6 months are recommended to receive influenza vaccine every year. The National Immunisation Program (NIP) provides free vaccine for eligible at-risk populations. While approximately 70% of older adults had received influenza vaccine in 2022, coverage in other age groups remains suboptimal. There are several key unmet needs and challenges, but also potential strategies for enhancing the influenza vaccination program in Australia. Improved monitoring and evaluation, including the use of relevant linked datasets for such purposes, is imperative to better understand variations in coverage and vaccination impact in specific populations. Adoption of evidence-based strategies, such as culturally appropriate resources that consider the characteristics of diverse Australian populations, may also help to achieve higher vaccine coverage rates. Additionally, greater vaccine uptake across the population could be facilitated by expanding the NIP-eligible population where cost-effective, and adopting the use of more effective and different types of vaccines when available.

Uptake of pneumococcal vaccines in older Australian adults before and after universal public funding of PCV13.

BACKGROUND: In 2020 Australia changed the funded universal older adult pneumococcal vaccination program from use of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) at age 65 to the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) at age 70 years. We investigated uptake of both PCV13 and PPV23 in older adults before and after the program change. METHODS: We analysed a national dataset of records of patients attending general practices (GPs). We included regular attendees aged 65 or above in 2020. Cumulative uptake of PCV13 and monthly uptake of PPV23 was compared for the two periods before (January 2019 to June 2020) and after (July 2020 to May 2021) the program change on 1 July 2020, by age groups and presence of comorbid conditions. RESULTS: Our study included data from 192,508 patients (mean age in 2020: 75.1 years, 54.2 % female, 46.1 % with at least one comorbidity). Before July 2020, for all adults regardless of underlying comorbidities, the cumulative uptake of PCV13 was < 1 % but by May 2021, eleven months after the program changes, cumulative uptake of PCV13 had increased among those aged 70-79 years (without comorbidity: 16.3 %; with comorbidity: 21.1 %) and 80 + years (without comorbidity: 13.5 %; with comorbidity: 17.7 %), but not among those aged 65-69 years (without comorbidity: 1.3 %; with comorbidity: 3 %). Monthly uptake of PPV23 dropped following the program change across all age groups. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in uptake of PCV13 and PPV23 among those aged 70 + years were consistent with program changes. However, PCV13 uptake was still substantially lower in individuals aged 65-69 years overall and in those with comorbidities.

Pneumococcal vaccination and primary care presentations for acute respiratory tract infection and antibiotic prescribing in older adults.

BACKGROUND: While the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) has demonstrated its role in preventing severe pneumococcal disease, its impact on more non-specific conditions like acute respiratory tract infection (ARI) and lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) remains unclear. We aimed to investigate the role of PPV23 in prevention of presentations for ARI and LRTI and related antibiotic prescriptions among older adults in primary care. METHODS: Using a nationwide general practice dataset, we followed a cohort of regularly attending patients aged ≥65 years from 1 January 2014 until 31 December 2018 for presentations for ARI, LRTI, and related antibiotic prescriptions. Associations between PPV23 receipt and each outcome were assessed using a multiple failures survival model to estimate hazard ratios (HR) adjusted for age, sex, socioeconomic status, and various health measures. RESULTS: A cohort of 75,264 patients aged ≥65 years (mean 75.4, 56% female) in 2014 was followed. The incidence of presentations for ARI, ARI-related antibiotic prescription, LRTI, and LRTI-related antibiotic prescription was 157.6, 76.0, 49.6, and 24.3 per 1000 person-years, respectively. Recent PPV23 vaccine receipt was associated with a small reduction in ARI presentations (adjusted HR vaccinated vs. unvaccinated 0.96; 95%CI 0.94-0.98; p = 0.002); however, there was no reduction in ARI-related antibiotic prescription, LRTI presentation, nor LRTI-related antibiotic prescription (adjusted HR were 0.99[95%CI 0.96-1.03], 1.04[95%CI 0.99-1.09], 1.07[95%CI 1.00-1.14]). CONCLUSION: PPV23 vaccination in older adults may result in a small reduction in the incidence of total ARI presentations in primary care. However, the effect is small and residual confounding cannot be excluded.

Incremental effectiveness of 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine against pneumonia hospitalisation among Australian Indigenous children: A record linkage study.

BACKGROUND: The impact of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) on pneumonia in children is well-documented but data on 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) are lacking. Between 2001 and 2011, Indigenous children in Western Australia (WA) were recommended to receive PPV23 at 18-24 months of age following 3 doses of 7-valent PCV. We evaluated the incremental effectiveness of PPV23 against pneumonia hospitalisation. METHODS: Indigenous children born in WA between 2001 and 2012 who received PCV dose 3 by 12 months of age were followed from 18 to 60 months of age for the first episode of pneumonia hospitalisation (all-cause and 3 subgroups: presumptive pneumococcal, other specified causes, and unspecified). We used Cox regression modelling to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) for pneumonia hospitalisation among children who had, versus had not, received PPV23 between 18 and 30 months of age after adjustment for confounders. RESULTS: 11,120 children had 327 first episodes of all-cause pneumonia hospitalisation, with 15 (4.6%) coded as presumptive pneumococcal, 46 (14.1%) as other specified causes and 266 (81.3%) unspecified. No statistically significant reduction in all-cause pneumonia was seen with PPV23 (HR 1.11; 95% CI: 0.87-1.43), but the direction of the association differed for presumptive pneumococcal (HR 0.47; 95% CI: 0.16-1.35) and specified (HR 0.89; 95% CI: 0.49-1.62) from unspecified causes (HR 1.13; 95% CI: 0.86-1.49). During the baseline period before PPV23 vaccination (12-18 months), all-cause pneumonia risk was higher among PPV23-vaccinated than unvaccinated children (RR: 1.73; 95% CI: 1.30-2.28). CONCLUSION: In this high-risk population, no statistically significant incremental effect of a PPV23 booster at 18-30 months was observed against hospitalised all-cause pneumonia or the more specific outcome of presumptive pneumococcal pneumonia. Confounding by indication may explain the slight trend towards an increased risk against all-cause pneumonia. Larger studies with better control of confounding are needed to further inform PPV23 vaccination.

Clinical and Epidemiologic Profile of Invasive Pneumococcal Disease in Australian Children Following the Relaxation of Nonpharmaceutical Interventions Against SARS-COV-2.

A global resurgence of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) has been noted in children. We provide a detailed clinical and epidemiological analysis of IPD in Australian children following relaxation of nonpharmaceutical interventions against coronavirus disease 2019, revealing significant morbidity and mortality-even in vaccinated children without known predisposing risk factors. Almost half of the IPD cases were caused by serotypes not covered by the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine.

ATAGI Targeted Review 2021: the national COVID-19 vaccination program.

Abstract: The overarching goal of the Australian coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination program has been to protect all people in Australia from the harm caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. This review reflects on the role of the Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation (ATAGI) in the national COVID-19 vaccination program, in terms of the initial programmatic and clinical recommendations in the evolving context of evidence relating to the disease and vaccines, epidemiology, and the program rollout. To fulfil the obligation to provide evidence-based advice to the Minister for Health and Aged Care on the safe, effective and equitable use of COVID-19 vaccines, ATAGI has worked closely with other agencies and committees such as the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) and the Communicable Diseases Network Australia. ATAGI recommendations have sought to optimise the use of the available vaccine doses in achieving the objectives of preventing serious illness and death from COVID-19 while addressing any emerging safety signals following program commencement on 22 February 2021. As of mid-November 2021, the use of COVID-19 vaccines in children aged 5 to 11 years was being considered by the TGA and ATAGI; and emerging evidence, in areas such as use of heterologous vaccine schedules and co-administration with other vaccines, was under review. Despite unprecedented challenges which the delivery of mass COVID-19 vaccination presented to health systems globally, in Australia much was achieved in 2021 with over 90% coverage for primary doses in the vaccine-eligible population. Evaluation, using high quality data and assessment methods, of vaccination program outcomes-such as coverage, vaccine effectiveness and impact-is key to determine whether program objectives have been achieved and where gaps remain. Reflecting on the lessons learned so far would help further improve the national COVID-19 vaccination program and would also benefit programs for other routine vaccines and planning for future pandemics.

ATAGI Targeted Review 2022: Vaccination for prevention of herpes zoster in Australia.

Abstract: In November 2016, herpes zoster (HZ) vaccination for older adults, using the live-attenuated zoster vaccine (Zostavax; ZVL) was added to the Australian National Immunisation Program (NIP) with the aim of reducing morbidity from HZ and its complications, particularly for people at increased risk. Prior to the program, there were on average 5.6 cases of HZ per 1,000 persons annually in Australia, with highest risk of disease in older and in immunocompromised people. The burden of complications of HZ, such as post-herpetic neuralgia (PHN), was also highest in older and immunocompromised groups. No formal comprehensive program evaluation has been undertaken since program commencement. This review examined published literature and available vaccine administration data to summarise the evidence and considerations underpinning current use of HZ vaccines and potential future program directions in Australia. There have been modest reductions in the incidence of HZ and its complications since program introduction. However, five years into the program, challenges remain, including suboptimal vaccine coverage and significant safety concerns arising from inadvertent use of ZVL in immunocompromised people, who are contraindicated to receive this vaccine. This reduces opportunities to offset the burden of HZ-related disease. The recombinant subunit zoster vaccine (Shingrix; RZV), first registered in Australia in 2018, became available on the Australian market in June 2021. This vaccine has higher efficacy than ZVL and, as a non-live vaccine, can be used in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised people. RZV has potential to address the unmet needs of at-risk population groups. However, it has not yet demonstrated cost-effectiveness for inclusion as a funded vaccine under the NIP. The Australian HZ vaccination program has had limited effectiveness in meeting its aim in highest risk groups. Future options and challenges anticipated in using vaccination to reduce the burden of HZ and its complications are discussed in this review.

Disseminated varicella zoster virus infection following live attenuated herpes zoster vaccine: descriptive analysis of reports to Australia's spontaneous vaccine pharmacovigilance system, 2016-2020.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the reported incidence and features of disseminated varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection following live attenuated herpes zoster vaccine live (ZVL: Zostavax, Merck) in immunocompromised people in Australia. DESIGN AND SETTING: ZVL was funded in 2016 in Australia for people aged 70 years, with a catch-up programme for those 71-79 years. From 2016 to 2020, three deaths due to disseminated vaccine-strain VZV infection occurred following inadvertent ZVL administration in individuals with varying levels of immunocompromise. This descriptive study examined 4 years of national surveillance data reported to the Therapeutic Goods Administration's Adverse Event Monitoring System (AEMS). Denominator data for rates were from doses recorded in the Australian Immunisation Register. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals vaccinated between 1 November 2016 and 31 December 2020 who experienced adverse event(s) following immunisation (AEFI) after ZVL recorded in the AEMS. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Rates and outcomes of confirmed (Oka strain positive) or probable disseminated VZV infection, and inadvertent administration of ZVL in immunocompromised individuals. RESULTS: 854 AEFI were reported from 1 089 966 doses of ZVL administered (78.4 per 100 000 doses). Of those, 14 were classified as confirmed (n=6, 0.55 per 100 000) or probable (n=8) disseminated VZV infection. The confirmed cases were all hospitalised, and most (5/6) were immunocompromised; three cases died. Thirty-seven individuals were reported as vaccinated despite a contraindication due to immunocompromise (3.4 per 100 000), with 12/37 (32%) hospitalised. CONCLUSIONS: Disseminated VZV is potentially life-threatening and occurs mostly in those with severe immunocompromise. Inadvertent administration of ZVL to immunocompromised individuals has occurred despite initial provider guidance and education. Multiple additional strategies to assist providers to identify contraindications have been implemented to prevent adverse outcomes.

Effectiveness of 7-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Against Invasive Pneumococcal Disease in Medically At-Risk Children in Australia: A Record Linkage Study.

BACKGROUND: Children with chronic medical conditions are at higher risk of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), but little is known about the effectiveness of the primary course of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) in these children. METHODS: A cohort born in 2001-2004 from two Australian states and identified as medically at-risk (MAR) of IPD either using ICD-coded hospitalizations (with conditions of interest identified by 6 months of age) or linked perinatal data (for prematurity) were followed to age 5 years for notified IPD by serotype. We categorized fully vaccinated children as either receiving PCV dose 3 by <12 months of age or ≥1 PCV dose at ≥12 months of age. Cox proportional hazard modeling was used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs), adjusted for confounders, and vaccine effectiveness (VE) was estimated as (1-HR) × 100. RESULTS: A total of 9220 children with MAR conditions had 53 episodes of IPD (43 vaccine-type); 4457 (48.3%) were unvaccinated and 4246 (46.1%) were fully vaccinated, with 1371 (32.3%) receiving dose 3 by 12 months and 2875 (67.7%) having ≥1 dose at ≥12 months. Estimated VE in fully vaccinated children was 85.9% (95% CI: 33.9-97.0) against vaccine-type IPD and 71.5% (95% CI: 26.6-88.9) against all-cause IPD. CONCLUSION: This is the first population-based study evaluating the effectiveness of PCV in children with MAR conditions using record linkage. Our study provides evidence that the VE for vaccine-type and all-cause IPD in MAR children in Australia is high and not statistically different from previously reported estimates for the general population. This method can be replicated in other countries to evaluate VE in MAR children.

Levels of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine coverage and indirect protection against invasive pneumococcal disease and pneumonia hospitalisations in Australia: An observational study.

BACKGROUND: There is limited empiric evidence on the coverage of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) required to generate substantial indirect protection. We investigate the association between population PCV coverage and indirect protection against invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) and pneumonia hospitalisations among undervaccinated Australian children. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Birth and vaccination records, IPD notifications, and hospitalisations were individually linked for children aged <5 years, born between 2001 and 2012 in 2 Australian states (New South Wales and Western Australia; 1.37 million children). Using Poisson regression models, we examined the association between PCV coverage, in small geographical units, and the incidence of (1) 7-valent PCV (PCV7)-type IPD; (2) all-cause pneumonia; and (3) pneumococcal and lobar pneumonia hospitalisation in undervaccinated children. Undervaccinated children received <2 doses of PCV at <12 months of age and no doses at ≥12 months of age. Potential confounding variables were selected for adjustment a priori with the assistance of a directed acyclic graph. There were strong inverse associations between PCV coverage and the incidence of PCV7-type IPD (adjusted incidence rate ratio [aIRR] 0.967, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.958 to 0.975, p-value < 0.001), and pneumonia hospitalisations (all-cause pneumonia: aIRR 0.991 95% CI 0.990 to 0.994, p-value < 0.001) among undervaccinated children. Subgroup analyses for children <4 months old, urban, rural, and Indigenous populations showed similar trends, although effects were smaller for rural and Indigenous populations. Approximately 50% coverage of PCV7 among children <5 years of age was estimated to prevent up to 72.5% (95% CI 51.6 to 84.4) of PCV7-type IPD among undervaccinated children, while 90% coverage was estimated to prevent 95.2% (95% CI 89.4 to 97.8). The main limitations of this study include the potential for differential loss to follow-up, geographical misclassification of children (based on residential address at birth only), and unmeasured confounders. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we observed substantial indirect protection at lower levels of PCV coverage than previously described-challenging assumptions that high levels of PCV coverage (i.e., greater than 90%) are required. Understanding the association between PCV coverage and indirect protection is a priority since the control of vaccine-type pneumococcal disease is a prerequisite for reducing the number of PCV doses (from 3 to 2). Reduced dose schedules have the potential to substantially reduce program costs while maintaining vaccine impact.

Serotype Distribution of Remaining Pneumococcal Meningitis in the Mature PCV10/13 Period: Findings from the PSERENADE Project.

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) introduction has reduced pneumococcal meningitis incidence. The Pneumococcal Serotype Replacement and Distribution Estimation (PSERENADE) project described the serotype distribution of remaining pneumococcal meningitis in countries using PCV10/13 for least 5-7 years with primary series uptake above 70%. The distribution was estimated using a multinomial Dirichlet regression model, stratified by PCV product and age. In PCV10-using sites (N = 8; cases = 1141), PCV10 types caused 5% of cases <5 years of age and 15% among ≥5 years; the top serotypes were 19A, 6C, and 3, together causing 42% of cases <5 years and 37% ≥5 years. In PCV13-using sites (N = 32; cases = 4503), PCV13 types caused 14% in <5 and 26% in ≥5 years; 4% and 13%, respectively, were serotype 3. Among the top serotypes are five (15BC, 8, 12F, 10A, and 22F) included in higher-valency PCVs under evaluation. Other top serotypes (24F, 23B, and 23A) are not in any known investigational product. In countries with mature vaccination programs, the proportion of pneumococcal meningitis caused by vaccine-in-use serotypes is lower (≤26% across all ages) than pre-PCV (≥70% in children). Higher-valency PCVs under evaluation target over half of remaining pneumococcal meningitis cases, but questions remain regarding generalizability to the African meningitis belt where additional data are needed.

Global Landscape Review of Serotype-Specific Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Surveillance among Countries Using PCV10/13: The Pneumococcal Serotype Replacement and Distribution Estimation (PSERENADE) Project.

Serotype-specific surveillance for invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) is essential for assessing the impact of 10- and 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV10/13). The Pneumococcal Serotype Replacement and Distribution Estimation (PSERENADE) project aimed to evaluate the global evidence to estimate the impact of PCV10/13 by age, product, schedule, and syndrome. Here we systematically characterize and summarize the global landscape of routine serotype-specific IPD surveillance in PCV10/13-using countries and describe the subset that are included in PSERENADE. Of 138 countries using PCV10/13 as of 2018, we identified 109 with IPD surveillance systems, 76 of which met PSERENADE data collection eligibility criteria. PSERENADE received data from most (n = 63, 82.9%), yielding 240,639 post-PCV10/13 introduction IPD cases. Pediatric and adult surveillance was represented from all geographic regions but was limited from lower income and high-burden countries. In PSERENADE, 18 sites evaluated PCV10, 42 PCV13, and 17 both; 17 sites used a 3 + 0 schedule, 38 used 2 + 1, 13 used 3 + 1, and 9 used mixed schedules. With such a sizeable and generally representative dataset, PSERENADE will be able to conduct robust analyses to estimate PCV impact and inform policy at national and global levels regarding adult immunization, schedule, and product choice, including for higher valency PCVs on the horizon.

Changes in Invasive Pneumococcal Disease Caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae Serotype 1 Following Introduction of PCV10 and PCV13: Findings from the PSERENADE Project.

Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 1 (ST1) was an important cause of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) globally before the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) containing ST1 antigen. The Pneumococcal Serotype Replacement and Distribution Estimation (PSERENADE) project gathered ST1 IPD surveillance data from sites globally and aimed to estimate PCV10/13 impact on ST1 IPD incidence. We estimated ST1 IPD incidence rate ratios (IRRs) comparing the pre-PCV10/13 period to each post-PCV10/13 year by site using a Bayesian multi-level, mixed-effects Poisson regression and all-site IRRs using a linear mixed-effects regression (N = 45 sites). Following PCV10/13 introduction, the incidence rate (IR) of ST1 IPD declined among all ages. After six years of PCV10/13 use, the all-site IRR was 0.05 (95% credibility interval 0.04-0.06) for all ages, 0.05 (0.04-0.05) for <5 years of age, 0.08 (0.06-0.09) for 5-17 years, 0.06 (0.05-0.08) for 18-49 years, 0.06 (0.05-0.07) for 50-64 years, and 0.05 (0.04-0.06) for ≥65 years. PCV10/13 use in infant immunization programs was followed by a 95% reduction in ST1 IPD in all ages after approximately 6 years. Limited data availability from the highest ST1 disease burden countries using a 3+0 schedule constrains generalizability and data from these settings are needed.

Estimating pneumococcal vaccine coverage among Australian Indigenous children and children with medically at-risk conditions using record linkage.

BACKGROUND: Risk-based recommendations are common for pneumococcal vaccines but little is known about their uptake. In Australia, pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) was funded only for Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander (Indigenous) children and those with underlying medical conditions in 2001, and then there were different booster dose recommendations depending on risk after the introduction of universal PCV vaccination in 2005. METHODS: We measured coverage of PCV dose 3 and additional PCV and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) doses by risk group among children born in July 2001-December 2012 in two Australian states using linked immunisation and hospitalisation data (available until December 2013). We ascertained medical risk conditions using hospitalisation diagnosis codes and Indigenous status using an established algorithm, comparing coverage for children born pre (2001-2004) and post (2005-2012) universal PCV funding. RESULTS: Among 1.3 million children, 63,897 (4.9%) were Indigenous and 32,934 (2.5%) had at least one medically at-risk condition identified by age 6 months. For births in 2001-2004, coverage for PCV dose 3 by 1 year of age was 37% for Indigenous, 15% for medically at-risk and 11% in other children, increasing to 83%, 91% and 92%, respectively for births in 2005-2012. In children with medically at-risk conditions, PCV dose 4 coverage by 2 years was 1% for 2001-2004 births, increasing to 9% for 2005-2012 births, with PPV23 coverage by 6 years 3% in both cohorts. Among eligible Indigenous children, PPV23 coverage by 3 years was 45% for 2001-2004 births and 51% for 2005-2012 births. CONCLUSIONS: Coverage with additional recommended booster doses was very low among children with medical conditions, and only modest among Indigenous children. If additional PCV doses are recommended for some risk groups, especially in the context of routine schedules with reduced doses (e.g. 2 + 1 and 1 + 1), measures to improve implementation will be required.

An outbreak of serotype-1 sequence type 306 invasive pneumococcal disease in an Australian Indigenous population.

Between 2010 and 2013, an outbreak of serotype-1 sequence type 306 (ST306) invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) occurred primarily in remote locations of Northern and Central Australia. This is a descriptive study of the epidemiology of the outbreak using nationwide IPD surveillance data, supplemented with more detailed data held by affected jurisdictions, and of the response to the outbreak, including vaccination strategies. In the year the outbreak peaked (2011), serotype-1 IPD incidence was over 30-fold higher in the affected regions than in the rest of Australia (incidence rate ratio: 30.7 [95% CI 20.1-48.9]). The study includes 245 cases of serotype-1 IPD from the outbreak regions, with 75.5% identified as Indigenous. No reported cases of serotype-1 IPD occurred in young children who had completed either a 10- or 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine schedule. However serotype-1 IPD did occur in older children who had previously received 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Development of public-health-focused national IPD management guidelines, including suitable vaccine strategies for consistent use nationwide, could potentially decrease the duration and intensity of similar outbreaks in the future.

Scientific evidence supporting recommendations on the use of the 9-valent HPV vaccine in a 2-dose vaccine schedule in Australia.

The Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation (ATAGI) updated recommendations on the use of human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines in the Australian Immunisation Handbook in 2018, regarding the use of the recently available 9-valent (9vHPV) vaccine, Gardasil 9, and a 2-dose schedule for young adolescents for HPV vaccines. This report provides an overview of the relevant scientific evidence that underpinned these updated recommendations. The 9vHPV vaccine includes 5 HPV types (HPV 31, 33, 45, 52 and 58) additional to the 4 that are also covered by the 4vHPV (Gardasil) vaccine (HPV 6,11,16,18). Accordingly, the 9vHPV vaccine is expected to prevent an additional 15% of cervical cancers and up to 20% of other HPV-related cancers. Non-inferior antibody responses after two 9vHPV vaccine doses given 6-12 months apart in girls and boys aged 9-14 years compared to women aged 16-26 years after three doses support the 2-dose schedule for adolescents of this age group. In clinical trials 9vHPV vaccine was well-tolerated with a similar safety profile to 4vHPV vaccine. The switch to 9vHPV vaccine and a 2-dose schedule is anticipated to improve public acceptability of the program and reduce HPV-related disease in the long-term.

Herpes zoster vaccination in Australia: what's available and who benefits?

Acute herpes zoster and associated postherpetic neuralgia is caused by reactivation of latent varicella zoster virus. It can be debilitating for older adults and interfere with activities of daily living A live, attenuated single-dose vaccine, that protects against both acute herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia, is available for free to all Australians aged 70 years, and in a catch-up program for those aged 71­79 years The vaccine is contraindicated in people who are immunocompromised, but can be considered in those who are receiving low doses of selected disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs Records of the Australian Immunisation Register suggest that only a third of 70 year olds received the vaccine in the first year-and-a-half of the program. This is likely an underestimation, but emphasises the importance of ensuring the vaccine is offered to all eligible patients and that vaccination is recorded on the Register A non-live recombinant herpes zoster vaccine has recently been developed which is more efficacious than the live vaccine in clinical trials. It is registered in Australia but not currently available

A Rationale for Change: An Increase in Invasive Pneumococcal Disease in Fully Vaccinated Children.

Increasing numbers of cases of invasive pneumococcal disease in fully vaccinated children have occurred in Australia since 2013. A review of cases informed a change from a "3 + 0" infant schedule (13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine at 2, 4, and 6 months) to a "2 + 1" schedule (2, 4, and 12 months).

Long-term Impact of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines on Invasive Disease and Pneumonia Hospitalizations in Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Australians.

BACKGROUND: Universal pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) programs began in Indigenous Australian children in 2001 and all children in 2005, changing to 13-valent PCV (PCV13) in 2011. We used laboratory data for invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) and coded hospitalizations for noninvasive pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia (PnCAP) to evaluate long-term impact. METHODS: Annual incidence (per 100 000 population) was calculated for age-specific total IPD, PCV13 non-7-valent PCV (PCV7) serotypes, and PnCAP by Indigenous status. Incidence in the pre-universal PCV7 (2002-2004), early PCV7 (2005-2007), pre-PCV13 (2008 to mid-2011), and post-PCV13 (mid-2011 to 2016) periods was used to calculate incidence rate ratios (IRRs). RESULTS: In the total population, all-age incidence of IPD declined from 11.8 pre-PCV7 to 7.1 post-PCV13 (IRR, 0.61 [95% confidence interval {CI}, .59-.63]) but for PnCAP declined among ages <1 year (IRR, 0.34 [95% CI, .25-.45]) and 1-4 years (IRR, 0.50 [95% CI, .43-.57]) but increased significantly among age ≥5 years (IRRs, 1.08-1.14). In Indigenous people, baseline PCV13 non-PCV7 IPD incidence was 3-fold higher, amplified by a serotype 1 epidemic in 2011. By 2015-2016, although incidence of IPD and PnCAP in children aged <5 years decreased by 38%, neither decreased in people aged ≥5 years. CONCLUSIONS: Fifteen years post-PCV and 5 years post-PCV13, direct and indirect impact on IPD and PnCAP differed by age and between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people, with potential implications for long-term PCV impact in comparable settings.Fifteen years after pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) introduction and 5 years post-PCV13, direct and indirect impact on invasive pneumococcal disease and pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia differed by age and between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people, with potential implications for long-term PCV impact in comparable settings.