Evolution of Defects, Morphology, and Strain during FAMAPbI3 Perovskite Vacuum Deposition: Insights from In Situ Photoluminescence and X-ray Scattering.

At present, the power conversion efficiency of single-junction perovskite-based solar cells reaches over 26%. The further efficiency increase of perovskite-based optoelectronic devices is limited mainly by defects, causing the nonradiative recombination of charge carriers. To improve efficiency and ensure reproducible fabrication of high-quality layers, it is crucial to understand the perovskite nucleation and growth mechanism along with associated process control to reduce the defect density. In this study, we investigate the growth kinetics of a promising narrow bandgap perovskite, formamidinium methylammonium lead iodide (FAMAPbI3), for high-performance single-junction solar cells. The temporal evolution of structural and optoelectronic properties during FAMAPbI3 vacuum codeposition was inspected in real time by grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering and photoluminescence. Such a combination of analytical techniques unravels the evolution of intrinsic defect density and layer morphology correlated with lattice strain from the early stages of the perovskite deposition.

SERS Performance of Ti3C2Tx MXene-Based Substrates Correlates with Surface Morphology.

The surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) properties of low-dimensional semiconducting MXene nanoflakes have been investigated over the last decade. Despite this fact, the relationship between the surface characteristics and SERSing performance of a MXene layer has yet to be comprehensively investigated and elucidated. This work shows the importance of surface morphology on the overall SERS effect by studying few-layer Ti3C2Tx MXene-based SERS substrates fabricated by vacuum-assisted filtration (VAF) and spray coating on filter paper. The VAF deposition results in a dense MXene layer suitable for SERS with high spot-to-spot and substrate-to-substrate reproducibility, with a significant limit of detection (LoD) of 20 nM for Rhodamine B analyte. The spray-coated MXenes film revealed lower uniformity, with a LoD of 50 nM for drop-casted analytes. Moreover, we concluded that the distribution of the analyte deposited onto the MXene layer is affected by the presence of MXene aggregates created during the deposition of the MXene layer. Accumulation of the analyte molecules in the vicinity of MXene aggregates was observed for drop-casted deposition of the analyte, which affects the resulting SERS enhancement. Ti3C2Tx MXene layers deposited on filter paper by VAF offer great potential as a cost-effective, easy-to-manufacture, yet robust, platform for sensing applications.

Selective Tumor Hypoxia Targeting Using M75 Antibody Conjugated Photothermally Active MoOx Nanoparticles.

Photothermal therapy (PTT) mediated at the nanoscale has a unique advantage over currently used cancer treatments, by being spatially highly specific and minimally invasive. Although PTT combats traditional tumor treatment approaches, its clinical implementation has not yet been successful. The reasons for its disadvantage include an insufficient treatment efficiency or low tumor accumulation. Here, we present a promising new PTT platform combining a recently emerged two-dimensional (2D) inorganic nanomaterial, MoOx, and a tumor hypoxia targeting element, the monoclonal antibody M75. M75 specifically binds to carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX), a hypoxia marker associated with many solid tumors with a poor prognosis. The as-prepared nanoconjugates showed highly specific binding to cancer cells expressing CAIX while being able to produce significant photothermal yield after irradiation with near-IR wavelengths. Small aminophosphonic acid linkers were recognized to be more effective over the combination of poly(ethylene glycol) chain and biotin-avidin-biotin bridge in constructing a PTT platform with high tumor-binding efficacy. The in vitro cellular uptake of nanoconjugates was visualized by high-resolution fluorescence microscopy and label-free live cell confocal Raman microscopy. The key to effective cancer treatment may be the synergistic employment of active targeting and noninvasive, tumor-selective therapeutic approaches, such as nanoscale-mediated PTT. The use of active targeting can streamline nanoparticle delivery increasing photothermal yield and therapeutic success.

Evolution of Structure and Optoelectronic Properties During Halide Perovskite Vapor Deposition.

The efficiency of perovskite-based solar cells has increased dramatically over the past decade to as high as 25%, making them very attractive for commercial use. Vapor deposition is a promising technique that potentially enables fabrication of perovskite solar cells on large areas. However, to implement a large-scale deposition method, understanding and controlling the specific growth mechanisms are essential for the reproducible fabrication of high-quality layers. Here, we study the structural and optoelectronic kinetics of MAPbI3, employing in-situ photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy and grazing-incidence small/wide-angle X-ray scattering (GI-SAXS/WAXS) simultaneously during perovskite vapor deposition. Such a unique combination of techniques reveals MAPbI3 formation from the early stages and uncovers the morphology, crystallographic structure, and defect density evolution. Furthermore, we show that the nonmonotonous character of PL intensity contrasts with the increasing volume of the perovskite phase during the growth, although bringing valuable information about the presence of defect states.

A wide-angle X-ray scattering laboratory setup for tracking phase changes of thin films in a chemical vapor deposition chamber.

The few-layer transition metal dichalcogenides (TMD) are an attractive class of materials due to their unique and tunable electronic, optical, and chemical properties, controlled by the layer number, crystal orientation, grain size, and morphology. One of the most commonly used methods for synthesizing the few-layer TMD materials is the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique. Therefore, it is crucial to develop in situ inspection techniques to observe the growth of the few-layer TMD materials directly in the CVD chamber environment. We demonstrate such an in situ observation on the growth of the vertically aligned few-layer MoS2 in a one-zone CVD chamber using a laboratory table-top grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS) setup. The advantages of using a microfocus X-ray source with focusing Montel optics and a single-photon counting 2D X-ray detector are discussed. Due to the position-sensitive 2D X-ray detector, the orientation of MoS2 layers can be easily distinguished. The performance of the GIWAXS setup is further improved by suppressing the background scattering using a guarding slit, an appropriately placed beamstop, and He gas in the CVD reactor. The layer growth can be monitored by tracking the width of the MoS2 diffraction peak in real time. The temporal evolution of the crystallization kinetics can be satisfactorily described by the Avrami model, employing the normalized diffraction peak area. In this way, the activation energy of the particular chemical reaction occurring in the CVD chamber can be determined.

Multilayer Langmuir Film of Monodisperse Au Nanoclusters: Unusual Growth via Bilayers.

The assembly of nanomaterials into thin films is an important area in the nanofabrication of novel devices. The monodispersity of nanoparticles plays an essential role in the resulting quality of the assembled mono- and multilayers. Larger polydispersity leads to smaller lateral correlation lengths and smaller domains of aligned nanoparticles, thus resulting in more point and line defects. Perfectly monodisperse nanoparticles should therefore minimize the number of defects in the assembled films. Despite tremendous progress in reducing the polydispersity of nanoparticles, there has been limited research on the assembly of thin films out of perfectly monodisperse nanoclusters. Here, we show a formation of Langmuir films using perfectly monodisperse gold nanoclusters with composition Au32(nBu3P)12Cl8 exhibiting a diameter of 1.8 nm. Using both in situ and ex situ small-angle X-ray scattering, we show that the monolayer formed on a Langmuir-Blodgett trough exhibits long-range order. Moreover, after compressing the monolayer, we found that the stress accumulated prior to the monolayer collapse triggers a transition to a short-range order not previously reported. If such monolayer is compressed further, the second layer is not formed as in the case of standard nanoparticles. Instead, a growth of islands by an odd number of layers is observed, leading to a thin film with a structure consisting of two different orientations of the hexagonal lattice. Such anomalous behavior may have implications for the possibilities of thin-film formation.

A synergistic effect of the ion beam sputtered NiOxhole transport layer and MXene doping on inverted perovskite solar cells.

The synergistic effect of high-quality NiOxhole transport layers (HTLs) deposited by ion beam sputtering on ITO substrates and the Ti3C2TxMXene doping of CH3NH3PbI3(MAPI) perovskite layers is investigated in order to improve the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of p-i-n perovskite solar cells (PSCs). The 18 nm thick NiOxlayers are pinhole-free and exhibit large-scale homogeneous surface morphology as revealed by the atomic force microscopy (AFM). The grazing-incidence x-ray diffraction showed a 0.75% expansion of the face-centered cubic lattice, suggesting an excess of oxygen as is typical for non-stoichiometric NiOx. The HTLs were used to fabricate the PSCs with MXene-doped MAPI layers. A PSC with undoped MAPI layer served as a control. The size of MAPI polycrystalline grains increased from 430 ± 80 nm to 620 ± 190 nm on the doping, as revealed by AFM. The 0.15 wt% MXene doping showed a 14.3% enhancement in PCE as compared to the PSC with undoped MAPI. The energy-resolved electrochemical impedance spectroscopy revealed one order of magnitude higher density of defect states in the band gap of MXene-doped MAPI layer, which eliminated beneficial effect of reduced total area of larger MAPI grain boundaries, decreasing short-circuit current. The PCE improvement is attributed to a decrease of the work function from -5.26 eV to -5.32 eV on the MXene doping, which increased open-circuit voltage and fill factor.

Combined in Situ Photoluminescence and X-ray Scattering Reveals Defect Formation in Lead-Halide Perovskite Films.

Lead-halide perovskites have established a firm foothold in photovoltaics and optoelectronics due to their steadily increasing power conversion efficiencies approaching conventional inorganic single-crystal semiconductors. However, further performance improvement requires reducing defect-assisted, nonradiative recombination of charge carriers in the perovskite layers. A deeper understanding of perovskite formation and associated process control is a prerequisite for effective defect reduction. In this study, we analyze the crystallization kinetics of the lead-halide perovskite MAPbI3-xClx during thermal annealing, employing in situ photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy complemented by lab-based grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS). In situ GIWAXS measurements are used to quantify the transition from a crystalline precursor to the perovskite structure. We show that the nonmonotonous character of PL intensity development reflects the perovskite phase volume, as well as the occurrence of the defects states at the perovskite layer surface and grain boundaries. The combined characterization approach enables easy determination of defect kinetics during perovskite formation in real-time.

Targeting acute myeloid leukemia cells by CD33 receptor-specific MoS2-based nanoconjugates.

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a highly aggressive type of cancer caused by the uncontrolled proliferation of undifferentiated myeloblasts, affecting the bone marrow and blood. Systemic chemotherapy is considered the primary treatment strategy; unfortunately, healthy cells are also affected to a large extent, leading to severe side effects of this treatment. Targeted drug therapies are becoming increasingly popular in modern medicine, as they bypass normal tissues and cells. Two-dimensional MoS2-based nanomaterials have attracted attention in the biomedical field as promising agents for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Cancer cells typically (over)express distinctive cytoplasmic membrane-anchored or -spanning protein-based structures (e.g., receptors, enzymes) that distinguish them from healthy, non-cancerous cells. Targeting cancer cells via tumor-specific markers using MoS2-based nanocarriers loaded with labels or drugs can significantly improve specificity and reduce side effects of such treatment. SKM-1 is an established AML cell line that has been employed in various bio-research applications. However, to date, it has not been used as the subject of studies on selective cancer targeting by inorganic nanomaterials. Here, we demonstrate an efficient targeting of AML cells using MoS2nanoflakes prepared by a facile exfoliation route and functionalized with anti-CD33 antibody that binds to CD33 receptors expressed by SKM-1 cells. Microscopic analyses by confocal laser scanning microscopy supplemented by label-free confocal Raman microscopy proved that (anti-CD33)-MoS2conjugates were present on the cell surface and within SKM-1 cells, presumably having been internalized via CD33-mediated endocytosis. Furthermore, the cellular uptake of SKM-1 specific (anti-CD33)-MoS2conjugates assessed by flow cytometry analysis was significantly higher compared with the cellular uptake of SKM-1 nonspecific (anti-GPC3)-MoS2conjugates. Our results indicate the importance of appropriate functionalization of MoS2nanomaterials by tumor-recognizing elements that significantly increase their specificity and hence suggest the utilization of MoS2-based nanomaterials in the diagnosis and therapy of AML.

On the extraction of MoO x photothermally active nanoparticles by gel filtration from a byproduct of few-layer MoS2 exfoliation.

Gel filtration is a versatile technique employed for biological molecules and nanoparticles, offering their reproducible classification based on size and shape. Colloidal nanoparticles are of significant interest in biomedical applications due to a large number of solution-based bioconjugation procedures. Nevertheless, the inherent polydispersity of the nanoparticles produced by various techniques necessitates the employment of high yield separation and purification techniques. Here we demonstrate the employment of gel filtration on non-stoichiometric plasmonic MoO x nanoparticles, prepared by an oxidation process during liquid-phase exfoliation of few-layer MoS2 nanosheets. This resulted in the separation of two types of MoO x particles, in the form of two different chromatographic fractions. They showed different sizes, morphological and optical properties. The fraction containing smaller particles with diameters of 1-4 nm, exhibited an increased absorbance peak in the near IR region and responded with a significant temperature increase to laser irradiation at the wavelength close to the maximal absorption. The fraction with the larger particles from 3 up to 10 nm, showed weak photoluminescence and a preferred orientation upon the deposition on a planar substrate. However, it had no absorbance in the near IR compared to the former fraction. According to our knowledge, this is the first time that the gel filtration was applied to the separation of molybdenum oxide nanomaterials. This step ensured the isolation of plasmonic MoO x nanoparticles suitable for further bioconjugation and target photothermal treatment.

Langmuir films of low-dimensional nanomaterials.

A large number of low-dimensional nanomaterials having different shapes and being dispersible in solvents open a fundamental question if there is a universal deposition technique for the monolayer formation. A monolayer formation of various nanomaterials at the air-water interface, also known as a Langmuir film, is a well-established technique even for the large group of the recently developed low-dimensional nanomaterials. In this review, we cover the monolayer formation of the zero-dimensional, one-dimensional and two-dimensional nanomaterials. Thanks to the formation of a Langmuir layer at the thermodynamic equilibrium, by using a suitable nanomaterial dispersion and subphase, the monolayers can be formed from all kinds of materials, ranging from the graphene oxide to the semiconducting quantum dots. In this review, we will discuss the basic requirements for the successful formation of monolayers and summarize the recent scientific advances in the field of Langmuir films.

Langmuir-Scheaffer Technique as a Method for Controlled Alignment of 1D Materials.

A widely applicable method for aligning 1D materials, and in particular carbon nanotubes (CNTs), independent of their preparation would be very useful as the growth methods for these materials are substance-specific. Langmuir-Schaefer (LS) deposition could be such an approach for alignment, as it aligns a large number of 1D materials independently of the desired substrate. However, the mechanism and required conditions for alignment of 1D nanomaterials in a Langmuir trough are still unclear. Here we show, relying on numerical simulations of the Langmuir film compression, that the LS method is a powerful tool to achieve maximal alignment of 1D material in a controllable manner. In particular, 1D materials terminated with a suitable surfactant can align only if the velocity induced by the attraction between individual 1D entities is low enough relative to the flow speed. To validate this model, we achieved an efficient LS alignment of single-walled carbon nanotubes covered with a suitable surfactant relying on the numerical simulations. In situ polarized Raman microspectroscopy during the compression of Langmuir film revealed good quantitative agreement between the numerical simulations and the experiment. This suggests the applicability of the LS technique as a versatile method for the controlled alignment of 1D materials.

A bioconjugated MoS2 based nanoplatform with increased binding efficiency to cancer cells.

We evaluate the application of surfactant-free liquid-phase exfoliated MoS2 nanosheets as a nanoplatform for a cancer detection and treatment system equipped with an antibody-antigen based recognition element. Employing antigen-antibody binding, we increased the probability of the endocytosis of MoS2 nanosheets into CAIX expressing cells by 30%. The nanosheets are functionalized with a specific antibody M75, which forms an antigen-antibody complex with CAIX. The bioconjugation of MoS2 nanosheets involves biocompatible components with low cytotoxicity, verified in the tested cell lines by fluorescence-based cell viability assay. The cellular internalization is quantified by flow cytometry, while the internalization is confirmed by label-free confocal Raman imaging. Raman measurements show increased lysosomal activity in the proximity of the internalized nanoplatforms.

Reorientation of π-conjugated molecules on few-layer MoS2 films.

Small π-conjugated organic molecules have attracted substantial attention in the past decade as they are considered as candidates for future organic-based (opto-)electronic applications. The molecular arrangement in the organic layer is one of the crucial parameters that determine the efficiency of a given device. The desired orientation of the molecules is achieved by a proper choice of the underlying substrate and growth conditions. Typically, one underlying material supports only one inherent molecular orientation at its interface. Here, we report on two different orientations of diindenoperylene (DIP) molecules on the same underlayer, i.e. on a few-layer MoS2 substrate. We show that DIP molecules adopt a lying-down orientation when deposited on few-layer MoS2 with horizontally oriented layers. In contrast, for vertically aligned MoS2 layers, DIP molecules are arranged in a standing-up manner. Employing in situ and real-time grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS), we monitored the stress evolution within the thin DIP layer from the early stages of the growth, revealing different substrate-induced phases for the two molecular orientations. Our study opens up new possibilities for the next-generation of flexible electronics, which might benefit from the combination of MoS2 layers with unique optical and electronic properties and an extensive reservoir of small organic molecules.

Tailored Langmuir-Schaefer Deposition of Few-Layer MoS2 Nanosheet Films for Electronic Applications.

Few-layer MoS2 films stay at the forefront of current research of two-dimensional materials. At present, continuous MoS2 films are prepared by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques. Herein, we present a cost-effective fabrication of the large-area spatially uniform films of few-layer MoS2 flakes using a modified Langmuir-Schaefer technique. The compression of the liquid-phase exfoliated MoS2 flakes on the water subphase was used to form a continuous layer, which was subsequently transferred onto a submerged substrate by removing the subphase. After vacuum annealing, the electrical sheet resistance dropped to a level of 10 kΩ/sq, being highly competitive with that of CVD-deposited MoS2 nanosheet films. In addition, a consistent fabrication protocol of the large-area conductive MoS2 films was established. The morphology and electrical properties predetermine these films to advanced detecting, sensing, and catalytic applications. A large number of experimental techniques were used to characterize the exfoliated few-layer MoS2 flakes and to elucidate the formation of the few-layer MoS2 Langmuir film.

An elevated concentration of MoS2 lowers the efficacy of liquid-phase exfoliation and triggers the production of MoOx nanoparticles.

It is generally accepted that liquid-phase exfoliation (LPE) enables large-scale production of few-layer MoS2 flakes. In our work, we studied in detail few-layer MoS2 oxidation in the course of standard LPE in a water/ethanol solution. We demonstrate that an increase of the initial MoS2 concentration above a certain threshold triggers a pronounced oxidation and the exfoliation process starts to produce MoOx nanoparticles. A subsequent decrease of the water pH along with an increased content of SO42- suggests an oxidation scenario of few-layer MoS2 oxidation towards MoOx nanoparticles. Moreover, the lowered pH leads to agglomeration and sedimentation of the few-layer MoS2 flakes, which significantly lowers their production yield. We employed a large number of physico-chemical techniques to study the MoS2-to-MoOx transformation and found a threshold value of 10 mg ml-1 of the initial MoS2 concentration to trigger this transformation.

Tailoring the interparticle distance in Langmuir nanoparticle films.

The ability to control the interparticle distance in self-assembled arrays of nanoparticles plays an important role in a large number of applications, which require tunable electronic and photonic properties. Importantly, practical applications in real devices rely on arrays satisfying more stringent requirements of lateral homogeneity controlled over a large scale. Herein, the interparticle distance in ordered nanoparticle assemblies was controlled by varying the nanoparticle effective size via the molecular chemical nature and chain length of the ligand. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) were functionalized by three types of ligands, namely (i) a mixture of oleic acid/oleylamine (OA/OAm), (ii) poly(n-butyl acrylate) (PBA) and (iii) polystyrene (PS), while two different molar masses of PBA and PS were used. The polymeric ligands with narrow dispersity and bearing phosphonic chain-end groups were prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization. Functionalization of the IONPs with polymeric ligands was achieved using a ligand exchange method. Both the hydrodynamic diameter and size distribution of the nanoparticles in colloidal solution were determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS). The mean interparticle distances in Langmuir-Schaefer monolayers prepared on solid substrates were assessed by means of the pair correlation function calculated from the atomic force microscopy (AFM) images. Furthermore, the lateral ordering, homogeneity, and interparticle distances averaged over a mesoscopic scale of the ordered monolayers were studied by the grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) technique. We demonstrate that the (nanoparticle) centre-to-centre distance in the ordered assemblies constituted by the IONPs with the core diameter of about 6 nm can be varied from 7.6 to about 12 nm with the resulting interparticle gap change by a factor of about 4.

Label-free tracking of nanosized graphene oxide cellular uptake by confocal Raman microscopy.

Graphene oxide (GO), a partially oxidized two-dimensional allotrope of carbon, is an attractive nanocarrier for cancer diagnostics and therapy. The nanometer-sized GO is known to permeate cell membranes. Herein we studied the cellular uptake pathways of GO nanoflakes by cancer and non-cancerous cell lines. By employing confocal Raman imaging, we were able to track the GO cellular uptake in living cells (C33 and MDCK) without any additional fluorescent or plasmonic labels. This specific progress in label-free Raman imaging of GO facilitates the monitoring of nanoflakes at the cellular level.

Cross-sectional TEM study of subsurface damage in SPDT machining of germanium optics.

In addition to surface roughness and shape precision, the subsurface damage (SSD) generated by single point diamond turning (SPDT) of Ge and Si crystal optics is of increasing importance with decreasing wavelength from infrared through visible, UV, and x-ray. There are various components of SSD, e.g., microcracks, dislocations, strain, and a near-surface amorphous layer, and there are also several techniques to evaluate various components of SSD. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (XTEM) is expensive and not often directly used in the optics laboratory. However, because of its very high sensitivity to SSD and down to atomic resolution, it is often used as an external service for developing SPDT technology and other surface processing techniques. It is shown in the paper that improper sample preparation can generate near-surface amorphization. Measures to avoid this artifact and a test of reliability of XTEM sample preparation are proposed.

Fast low-temperature plasma reduction of monolayer graphene oxide at atmospheric pressure.

We report on an ultrafast plasma-based graphene oxide reduction method superior to conventional vacuum thermal annealing and/or chemical reduction. The method is based on the effect of non-equilibrium atmospheric-pressure plasma generated by the diffuse coplanar surface barrier discharge in proximity of the graphene oxide layer. As the reduction time is in the order of seconds, the presented method is applicable to the large-scale production of reduced graphene oxide layers. The short reduction times are achieved by the high-volume power density of plasma, which is of the order of 100 W cm-3. Monolayers of graphene oxide on silicon substrate were prepared by a modified Langmuir-Schaefer method and the efficient and rapid reduction by methane and/or hydrogen plasma was demonstrated. The best results were obtained for the graphene oxide reduction in hydrogen plasma, as verified by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy.