Age influences the thermal suitability of Plasmodium falciparum transmission in the Asian malaria vector Anopheles stephensi.

Models predicting disease transmission are vital tools for long-term planning of malaria reduction efforts, particularly for mitigating impacts of climate change. We compared temperature-dependent malaria transmission models when mosquito life-history traits were estimated from a truncated portion of the lifespan (a common practice) versus traits measured across the full lifespan. We conducted an experiment on adult female Anopheles stephensi, the Asian urban malaria mosquito, to generate daily per capita values for mortality, egg production and biting rate at six constant temperatures. Both temperature and age significantly affected trait values. Further, we found quantitative and qualitative differences between temperature-trait relationships estimated from truncated data versus observed lifetime values. Incorporating these temperature-trait relationships into an expression governing the thermal suitability of transmission, relative R0(T), resulted in minor differences in the breadth of suitable temperatures for Plasmodium falciparum transmission between the two models constructed from only An. stephensi trait data. However, we found a substantial increase in thermal niche breadth compared with a previously published model consisting of trait data from multiple Anopheles mosquito species. Overall, this work highlights the importance of considering how mosquito trait values vary with mosquito age and mosquito species when generating temperature-based suitability predictions of transmission.

Comparison of fluoroscopic cardiovascular measurements from healthy dogs obtained at end-diastole and end-systole.

INTRODUCTION: Quantitative measurements are commonly implemented to objectively evaluate heart size in dogs. However, recent studies suggest that the phase of cardiac cycle can impact vertebral heart score, thereby potentially influencing clinical management. This study used fluoroscopy to assess the impact of the cardiac cycle on quantitative cardiovascular measurements in healthy dogs of various breeds. ANIMALS, MATERIALS, AND METHODS: This was a prospective study. Multiple cardiac and respiratory cycles were recorded fluoroscopically. Peak inspiratory end-systole and end-diastole frames were captured from 49 dogs in right lateral recumbency. Vertebral heart score (VHS), cardiothoracic ratio (CTR), vertebral left atrial size (VLAS), and caudal vena cava diameter ratio (CVCDR) measurements were performed. Mean cardiac measurements were compared between cardiac cycle phases, and the impact of body condition score (BCS), weight, thoracic conformation, sex, and age was evaluated. RESULTS: Cardiac cycle had a significant impact on VHS (mean difference: 0.36 ± 0.14 vertebral units between systole and diastole; p < 0.001) and CTR (mean difference: 2.2 ± 1.2% between systole and diastole; p < 0.001). Cardiac cycle had no significant impact on VLAS or CVCDR. Increasing BCS significantly increased variation between systole and diastole in CTR measurements (p = 0.024). CONCLUSIONS: The cardiac cycle has a significant effect on VHS and CTR but does not impact VLAS or CVCDR. These findings should be taken into consideration during clinical use of these measurements, especially if a patient is being monitored for cardiac changes over time via serial radiographs.

A Mathematical Modeling Approach to the Cort-Fitness Hypothesis.

The Cort-Fitness Hypothesis has generated much interest from investigators integrating field endocrinology with evolutionary biology, ecology, and conservation. The hypothesis was developed to test the assumption that if glucocorticoid levels increase with environmental challenges and fitness decreases with environmental challenges, then there should be a negative relationship between baseline glucocorticoid levels and fitness. Indeed, studies across diverse taxa have found that the relationship between baseline glucocorticoid levels and fitness are not consistent: some studies show a positive relationship, others negative, and some show no correlation. Hence, a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between baseline glucocorticoid levels, environmental challenges, and fitness is needed. We propose a mathematical model representing the links between baseline glucocorticoid levels, environmental challenges, and fitness. Our model describes how variation in the predictability and intensity of environmental challenges, reproductive strategies, and fitness metrics can all contribute to the variability observed in empirical tests of the Cort-Fitness Hypothesis. We provide qualitative results showing that much of the inconsistency in previous studies can be explained and we discuss how the model can be used to inform future Cort-Fitness studies.

Un enfoque de modelado matemático para la hipótesis de Cort-Fitness (A Mathematical Modeling Approach to The Cort-Fitness Hypothesis) La hipótesis de Cort-Fitness ha generado mucho interés por parte de los investigadores que integran la endocrinología de campo con la biología evolutiva, la ecología y la conservación. La hipótesis se desarrolló para probar el supuesto de que si los niveles de glucocorticoides aumentan con los desafíos ambientales y la aptitud física disminuye con los ambientales, entonces debería existir una relación negativa entre los niveles de glucocorticoides de referencia y la aptitud física. De hecho, los estudios en diversos taxones han encontrado que la relación entre los niveles de glucocorticoides de referencia y la aptitud no son consistentes: algunos estudios muestran una relación positiva, otros negativos y otros no muestran correlación. Por lo tanto, se necesita una comprensión más profunda de los mecanismos subyacentes en la relación entre los niveles de glucocorticoides de referencia, los desafíos ambientales y la aptitud. Proponemos un modelo matemático que representa los vínculos entre los niveles basales de glucocorticoides, los desafíos ambientales y la aptitud. Nuestro modelo describe cómo la variación en la previsibilidad e intensidad de los desafíos ambientales, las estrategias reproductivas y las métricas de aptitud pueden contribuir a la variabilidad observada en las pruebas empíricas de la hipótesis de Cort-Fitness. Proporcionamos resultados cualitativos que muestran que gran parte de la variación en estudios anteriores se puede explicar y discutimos cómo se puede usar el modelo para informar futuros estudios de Cort-Fitness. Translated to Spanish by J Heras (herasj01@gmail.com).

Uma Abordagem Matématica de Modelagem para a Hipótese Cort-Fitness (A Mathematical Modeling Approach to The Cort-Fitness Hypothesis) A hipótese de cort-fitness gerou muito interesse de pesquisadores ao integrar endocrinologia de campo com biologia evolutiva, ecologia e conservação. A hipótese foi desenvolvida para testar a suposição de que, se os níveis de glicocorticóides aumentam com os desafios ambientais e o fitness diminui, então deve haver uma relação negativa entre os níveis basais de glicocorticóides e o fitness. De fato, estudos com diversos táxons descobriram que a relação entre os níveis basais de glicocorticoides e o fitness não são consistentes: alguns mostram uma relação positiva, outros uma negativa e há ainda os que não mostram correlação alguma. Assim, é necessária uma compreensão mais profunda dos mecanismos subjacentes à relação entre os níveis basais de glicocorticóides, os desafios ambientais e o fitness. Propomos um modelo matemático que representa as ligações entre os níveis basais de glicocorticoides, os desafios ambientais e o fitness. Nosso modelo descreve como a variação na previsibilidade e intensidade dos desafios ambientais, estratégias reprodutivas e métricas de fitness podem contribuir para a variabilidade observada nos testes empíricos da hipótese cort-fitness. Nós fornecemos resultados qualitativos mostrando que grande parte da variação em estudos anteriores pode ser explicada e discutimos como o modelo pode ser usado para informar futuros estudos sobre o cort-fitness. Translated to Portuguese by G Sobral (gabisobral@).

Localization of Contextual and Context Removed Auditory Fear Memory within the Basolateral Amygdala Complex.

Debilitating and persistent fear memories can rapidly form in humans following exposure to traumatic events. Fear memories can also be generated and studied in animals via Pavlovian fear conditioning. The current study was designed to evaluate basolateral amygdala complex (BLC) involvement following the formation of different fear memories (two contextual fear memories and one adjusted auditory fear memory). Fear memories were created in the same context with five 1.0 mA (0.50 s) foot-shocks and, where necessary, five auditory tones (5 kHz, 75 dB, 20 s). The adjusted auditory fear conditioning protocol was employed to remove background contextual fear and produce isolated auditory fear memories. Immunofluorescent labeling was utilized to identify neurons expressing immediate early genes (IEGs). We found the two contextual fear conditioning (CFC) procedures to produce similar levels of fear-related freezing to context. Contextual fear memories produced increases in BLC IEG expression with distinct and separate patterns of expression. These data suggest contextual fear memories created in slightly altered contexts, can produce unique patterns of amygdala activation. The adjusted auditory fear conditioning procedure produced memories to a tone, but not to a context. This group, where no contextual fear was present, had a significant reduction in BLC IEG expression. These data suggest background contextual fear memories, created in standard auditory fear conditioning protocols, contribute significantly to increases in amygdala activation.

Reflux aspiration in lungs of dogs with respiratory disease and in healthy West Highland White Terriers.

BACKGROUND: Gastroesophageal reflux and microaspiration (MA) of gastric juice are associated with various human respiratory diseases but not in dogs. OBJECTIVE: To detect the presence of bile acids in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of dogs with various respiratory diseases. ANIMALS: Twenty-seven West Highland White Terriers (WHWTs) with canine idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (CIPF), 11 dogs with bacterial pneumonia (BP), 13 with chronic bronchitis (CB), 9 with eosinophilic bronchopneumopathy (EBP), 19 with laryngeal dysfunction (LD), 8 Irish Wolfhounds (IWHs) with previous BPs, 13 healthy WHWTs, all privately owned dogs, and 6 healthy research colony Beagles METHODS: Prospective cross-sectional observational study with convenience sampling of dogs. Bile acids were measured by mass spectrometry in BALF samples. Total bile acid (TBA) concentration was calculated as a sum of 17 different bile acids. RESULTS: Concentrations of TBA were above the limit of quantification in 78% of CIPF, 45% of BP, 62% of CB, 44% of EBP, 68% of LD, and 13% of IWH dogs. In healthy dogs, bile acids were detected less commonly in Beagles (0/6) than in healthy WHWTs (10/13). Concentrations of TBA were significantly higher in CIPF (median 0.013 µM, range not quantifiable [n.q.]-0.14 µM, P < .001), healthy WHWTs (0.0052 µM, n.q.-1.2 µM, P = .003), LD (0.010 µM, n.q.-2.3 µM, P = .015), and CB (0.0078 µM, n.q.-0.073 µM, P = .018) groups compared to Beagles (0 µM, n.q.). CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: These results suggest that MA occurs in various respiratory diseases of dogs and also in healthy WHWTs.

Fluoroscopic Estimation of Thoracic Dimensional Changes in Healthy Dogs.

BACKGROUND: Current methods available for assessing alterations in lung mechanics require sophisticated equipment and are of limited availability. A method that could assess lung area change with respiration might be a clinically useful surrogate for assessing lung compliance. OBJECTIVE: To use fluoroscopy to determine percent change in thoracic and lung areas in healthy dogs. ANIMALS: Forty-four client-owned dogs with no evidence of respiratory disease. METHODS: Prospective study. Resting respiration was recorded fluoroscopically, and peak inspiratory and expiratory frames were captured for 3 typical respiratory cycles. The number of intrathoracic pixels in the entire thoracic cavity was measured for both inspiration and expiration, and the average percent change in intrathoracic area was determined for each dog. This process was repeated by a hemithorax measurement of lung area that excluded the mediastinum and cardiac silhouette. Proposed reference ranges (and 95% confidence intervals [CI]) were computed by a nonparametric percentile distribution. RESULTS: Median percent change in thoracic dimension for the total thorax measurement was 12.5% (CI, 8.9-24.0%). Median percent change for the hemithorax measurement was significantly (P < 0.001) larger (20.8%, CI, 14.3-37.6%). Both measurement techniques were correlated with body weight but not with age, sex, thoracic conformation, body condition score (BCS), or breed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Fluoroscopy allows a noninvasive and repeatable measure of lung area changes during respiration that must be corrected for body weight. Additional studies in dogs with respiratory diseases are needed to determine its utility in detecting clinically useful alterations in lung area changes.

Severity of Nasal Inflammatory Disease Questionnaire for Canine Idiopathic Rhinitis Control: Instrument Development and Initial Validity Evidence.

BACKGROUND: Effective treatments are needed for idiopathic chronic rhinitis in dogs, but assessment of efficacy requires a practical, quantifiable method for assessing severity of disease. OBJECTIVES: To develop and perform initial validity and reliability testing of an owner-completed questionnaire for assessing clinical signs and dog and owner quality of life (QOL) in canine chronic rhinitis. ANIMALS: Twenty-two dogs with histopathologically confirmed chronic rhinitis and 72 healthy dogs. METHODS: In this prospective study, an online questionnaire was created based on literature review and feedback from veterinarians, veterinary internists with respiratory expertise, and owners of dogs with rhinitis. Owners of affected dogs completed the questionnaire twice, 1 week apart, to test reliability. Healthy dogs were assessed once. Data were analyzed using the Rasch Rating Scale Model, and results were interpreted using Messick's framework for evaluating construct validity evidence. RESULTS: Initial item generation resulted in 5 domains: nasal signs, paranasal signs, global rhinitis severity, and dog's and owner's QOL. A 25-item questionnaire was developed using 5-point Likert-type scales. No respondent found the questionnaire difficult to complete. Strong psychometric evidence was available to support the substantive, generalizability, content, and structural aspects of construct validity. Statistical differences were found between responses for affected and control dogs for all but 2 items. These items were eliminated, resulting in the 23-item Severity of Nasal Inflammatory Disease (SNIFLD) questionnaire. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: The SNIFLD questionnaire provides a mechanism for repeated assessments of disease severity in dogs with chronic rhinitis.

Evaluation of Serum Aspergillus-Specific Immunoglobulin A by Indirect ELISA for Diagnosis of Feline Upper Respiratory Tract Aspergillosis.

BACKGROUND: Serological tests for diagnosis of aspergillosis in immunocompetent humans and animals are based on Aspergillus-specific IgG (As-IgG). In humans with chronic pulmonary aspergillosis, As-IgA may be detectable even if IgG titers are negative. Cats with upper respiratory tract aspergillosis (URTA) have detectable As-IgG, but their ability to mount an IgA response and its diagnostic utility are unknown. OBJECTIVES: To determine whether serum As-IgA can be detected in cats with URTA and evaluate its diagnostic utility alone or combined with As-IgG. ANIMALS: Twenty-three cats with URTA (Group 1), 32 cats with other respiratory diseases (Group 2), and 84 nonrespiratory controls (Group 3). METHODS: Serum As-IgA and As-IgG was measured by indirect ELISA. Optimal cutoff values were determined by receiver-operating curve analysis. Sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) for URTA diagnosis were determined. RESULTS: Serum IgA was detected in 91.3% of Group 1 cats. The Se of IgA detection was 78.3% and Sp was 96.9% for Group 2, 85.7% for Group 3 and 88.8% for Group 2 and 3 combined. Assay Se for IgG was 100% and Sp was 92.2%. Using combined IgA and IgG results at cutoffs optimized for Sp for IgA and Se for IgG and combined controls (Groups 2 and 3), Se for diagnosis was 100% and Sp was 91.4%. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Most cats with URTA have serum As-IgA antibodies that can be detected by ELISA. Paired measurement of serum As-IgA and IgG shows no benefit for diagnosis of feline URTA over IgG alone.

Diagnostic Value of Right Pulmonary Artery Distensibility Index in Dogs with Pulmonary Hypertension: Comparison with Doppler Echocardiographic Estimates of Pulmonary Arterial Pressure.

BACKGROUND: Noninvasive diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension (PH) primarily relies upon Doppler echocardiography of tricuspid regurgitation (TR). However, TR might be absent or difficult to measure. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To determine the diagnostic value of right pulmonary artery distensibility (RPAD) index for prediction of Doppler-derived estimates of pulmonary artery (PA) pressure compared to other indices of PH in dogs. ANIMALS: Sixty-nine client-owned dogs with TR. METHODS: Prospective observational study. Dogs were allocated to groups according to TR pressure gradient (TRPG): TRPG <36 mmHg (control, n = 22), TRPG 36-50 (n = 16), TRPG 50-75 (n = 14) and TRPG >75 mmHg (n = 17). Right pulmonary artery distensibility index, acceleration time to peak PA flow (AT), AT: ejection time of PA flow (AT:ET) and main PA size: aorta size (MPA:Ao) were calculated in each dog. RESULTS: Right pulmonary artery distensibility index demonstrated the strongest correlation (r = -0.90; P < .0001) to TRPG followed by MPA:Ao (r = 0.78; P < .0001), AT (r = -0.69; P < .0001) and AT:ET (r = -0.68; P < .0001). RPAD index possessed the most accurate cutoff (<29.5%; Sensitivity [Sn] 0.84, Specificity [Sp] 0.95) to predict TRPG >50 mmHg compared to AT (<53.9 ms; Sn 0.74, Sp 0.87), AT:ET (<0.30; Sn 0.61, Sp 0.97) and MPA:Ao (>1.04; Sn 0.94, Sp 0.74). All intra- and interobserver measurement variabilities exhibited coefficients of variation ≤13%. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Right pulmonary artery distensibility index is an accurate predictor of TRPG and should be particularly useful if TR is absent or difficult to measure.

Bronchoscopy, Imaging, and Concurrent Diseases in Dogs with Bronchiectasis: (2003-2014).

BACKGROUND: Bronchiectasis is a permanent and debilitating sequel to chronic or severe airway injury, however, diseases associated with this condition are poorly defined. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate results of diagnostic tests used to document bronchiectasis and to characterize underlying or concurrent disease processes. ANIMALS: Eighty-six dogs that had bronchoscopy performed and a diagnosis of bronchiectasis. METHODS: Retrospective case series. Radiographs, computed tomography, and bronchoscopic findings were evaluated for features of bronchiectasis. Clinical diagnoses of pneumonia (aspiration, interstitial, foreign body, other), eosinophilic bronchopneumopathy (EBP), and inflammatory airway disease (IAD) were made based on results of history, physical examination, and diagnostic testing, including bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis and microbiology. RESULTS: Bronchiectasis was diagnosed in 14% of dogs (86/621) that had bronchoscopy performed. Dogs ranged in age from 0.5 to 14 years with duration of signs from 3 days to 10 years. Bronchiectasis was documented during bronchoscopy in 79/86 dogs (92%), thoracic radiology in 50/83 dogs (60%), and CT in 34/34 dogs (100%). Concurrent airway collapse was detected during bronchoscopy in 50/86 dogs (58%), and focal or multifocal mucus plugging of segmental or subsegmental bronchi was found in 41/86 dogs (48%). Final diagnoses included pneumonia (45/86 dogs, 52%), EBP (10/86 dogs, 12%) and IAD (31/86 dogs, 36%). Bacteria were isolated in 24/86 cases (28%), with Streptococcus spp, Pasteurella spp, enteric organisms, and Stenotrophomonas isolated most frequently. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Bronchiectasis can be anticipated in dogs with infectious or inflammatory respiratory disease. Advanced imaging and bronchoscopy are useful in making the diagnosis and identifying concurrent respiratory disease.

Iatrogenic Perforation of Stomach--A Case Report.

Gastric lavage is a routine procedure done in many cases of poisoning and it has been advocated by many as a lifesaving procedure. There may be some instances, where it might be unnecessary, ineffective or even detrimental to life. A 35 year old man walked into a casualty, 2 hours after having ingested 15 benzodiazepine tablets. Lavage was done by an unqualified person using Ewald's tube, leading to iatrogenic perforation. The unwarranted use of the procedure proved to be fatal.

Agreement Among Radiographs, Fluoroscopy and Bronchoscopy in Documentation of Airway Collapse in Dogs.

BACKGROUND: Airway collapse is a common finding in dogs with chronic cough, yet the diagnosis can be difficult to confirm without specialty equipment. HYPOTHESIS: Bronchoscopic documentation of tracheobronchial collapse will show better agreement with fluoroscopic imaging than with standard radiography. ANIMALS: Forty-two dogs prospectively evaluated for chronic cough. METHODS: In this prospective study, three-view thoracic radiographs were obtained followed by fluoroscopy during tidal respiration and fluoroscopy during induction of cough. Digital images were assessed for the presence or absence of collapse at the trachea and each lobar bronchus. Bronchoscopy was performed under general anesthesia for identification of tracheobronchial collapse at each lung segment. Agreement of imaging tests with bronchoscopy was evaluated along with sensitivity and specificity of imaging modalities as compared to bronchoscopy. RESULTS: Airway collapse was identified in 41/42 dogs via 1 or more testing modalities. Percent agreement between pairs of tests varied between 49 and 87% with poor-moderate agreement at most bronchial sites. Sensitivity for the detection of bronchoscopically identified collapse was highest for radiography at the trachea, left lobar bronchi, and the right middle bronchus, although specificity was relatively low. Detection of airway collapse was increased when fluoroscopy was performed after induction of cough compared to during tidal respiration. CONCLUSIONS: Radiography and fluoroscopy are complementary imaging techniques useful in the documentation of bronchial collapse in dogs. Confirming the presence or absence of tracheal or bronchial collapse can require multiple imaging modalities as well as bronchoscopy.

Tracheobronchial brush cytology and bronchoalveolar lavage in dogs and cats with chronic cough: 45 cases (2012-2014).

BACKGROUND: Animals with chronic cough can have normal bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cytology when small airway disease is absent. Cytology of a tracheobronchial brushing can detect inflammation in larger airways; however, evaluation of this technique has been limited in veterinary medicine. OBJECTIVE: To compare airway brush cytology to bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis in dogs and cats with chronic cough. ANIMALS: Forty dogs and five cats undergoing bronchoscopic investigation of chronic cough. METHODS: Prospective study. Bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage were performed followed by tracheobronchial brushing of central airways. Results of cytologic assessment of BAL fluid and brush cytology were compared for the presence or absence of inflammation and concordance of inflammatory cell type. RESULTS: Brush cytology detected central airway inflammation in 34 of 40 (85%) dogs with inflammatory BAL fluid. However, the type of inflammation reported differed in 23 of 34 dogs. In five cats with inflammation in BAL fluid, brush cytology detected inflammation in four; the type of inflammation was discordant in all cats. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Brush cytology has good agreement with BAL regarding the presence of inflammation, although the type of inflammation detected with the different sampling techniques commonly varies. Brush cytology can provide supplementary information to BAL, and additional studies will provide further information on the role of tracheobronchial brush cytology in the diagnosis and management of respiratory conditions.

Detection of Aspergillus-specific antibodies by agar gel double immunodiffusion and IgG ELISA in feline upper respiratory tract aspergillosis.

Feline upper respiratory tract aspergillosis (URTA) is an emerging infectious disease. The aims of this study were: (1) to assess the diagnostic value of detection of Aspergillus-specific antibodies using an agar gel double immunodiffusion (AGID) assay and an indirect immunoglobulin G (IgG) ELISA; and (2) to determine if an aspergillin derived from mycelia of Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus can be used to detect serum antibodies against cryptic Aspergillus spp. in Aspergillus section Fumigati. Sera from cats with URTA (group 1: n = 21) and two control groups (group 2: cats with other upper respiratory tract diseases, n = 25; group 3: healthy cats and cats with non-respiratory, non-fungal illness, n = 84) were tested. Isolates from cats with URTA comprised A. fumigatus (n = 5), A. flavus (n = 1) and four cryptic species: Aspergillus felis (n = 12), Aspergillus thermomutatus (Neosartorya pseudofischeri, n = 1), Aspergillus lentulus (n = 1) and Aspergillus udagawae (n = 1). Brachycephalic purebred cats were significantly more likely to develop URTA than other breeds (P = 0.013). The sensitivity (Se) of the AGID was 43% and the specificity (Sp) was 100%. At a cut-off value of 6 ELISA units/mL, the Se of the IgG ELISA was 95.2% and the Sp was 92% and 92.9% for groups 2 and 3 cats, respectively. Aspergillus-specific antibodies against all four cryptic species were detected in one or both assays. Assay Se was not associated with species identity. Detection of Aspergillus-specific antibodies by IgG ELISA has high Se and Sp for diagnosis of feline URTA.

Upper airway obstruction in Norwich Terriers: 16 cases.

BACKGROUND: Norwich Terriers have grown increasingly popular as show animals and pets, and awareness of respiratory problems within the breed is growing. OBJECTIVE: To describe components of obstructive upper airway syndrome in a nonbrachycephalic terrier breed. ANIMALS: Sixteen Norwich Terriers; 12 with and 4 without clinical signs of respiratory disease. METHODS: Prospective case series. Physical and laryngoscopic examinations were performed by 1 investigator in all dogs. Medical and surgical interventions were summarized and results of follow-up examination or owner reports were recorded. RESULTS: The study population was comprised of 9 females (6 intact) and 7 males (5 intact). Median age was 3.0 years (range, 0.5-11 years). Of 12 dogs presented for a respiratory complaint, physical examination was normal in 4 dogs. Laryngoscopic examination was abnormal in 11/12 dogs with redundant supra-arytenoid folds, laryngeal collapse, everted laryngeal saccules, and a narrowed laryngeal opening in most. Of 4 dogs lacking clinical signs, all had normal physical examination; however, 3/4 dogs had similar appearance of the larynx to dogs with clinical signs. Response to surgical intervention was minimal to moderate in all dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Norwich Terriers suffer from an upper airway obstructive syndrome that differs from that encountered in brachycephalic breeds. Affected dogs are difficult to identify without laryngoscopic examination because of the lack of clinical signs and abnormalities in physical examination findings, despite severe airway obstruction. Care is warranted when anesthetizing Norwich Terriers because of the small size of the laryngeal opening.

Diagnostic utility of D-dimer concentrations in dogs with pulmonary embolism.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a complication of systemic disease in dogs. Antemortem diagnosis is challenging because of the lack of a confirmatory test. OBJECTIVES: To retrospectively determine the diagnostic utility of D-dimer concentrations in dogs with necropsy-confirmed PE. ANIMALS: Ten dogs with PE confirmed at necropsy that had D-dimer concentrations measured and 10 control dogs with D-dimer concentrations available that lacked PE on necropsy. METHODS: The computerized medical record database was searched for dogs with necropsy-confirmed PE that had D-dimer concentrations measured at that visit. An age-, sex-, and breed-matched control group was identified. Signalment, location of PE, and coagulation profiles were collected. Sensitivity, specificity, negative predictive value (NPV), and positive predictive value (PPV) were calculated using a D-dimer concentration of 250 ng/mL. RESULTS: Coagulation profiles were not different between dogs with and without PE. Using 250 ng/mL as a cut-off D-dimer concentration, the sensitivity and specificity were 80 and 30%, respectively, for the diagnosis of PE. The NPV and PPV were 60 and 53.0%, respectively. D-dimer concentration <103 ng/mL had 100% sensitivity for ruling out PE and no value was 100% specific. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: D-dimer concentrations <250 ng/mL have a high sensitivity for the absence of PE, but PE still can occur in dogs with a normal D-dimer concentration. Increased D-dimer concentrations are not specific for PE.

Neuroendocrine tumour at the carina of a dog.

A 10-year-old, neutered female, crossbred pit bull terrier was presented for cough, haemoptysis and rapidly progressive respiratory difficulty. Thoracic radiographs suggested a soft tissue density at the carina and bronchoscopy revealed a large, broad-based mass obstructing the entire left mainstem bronchus and half of the entrance to the right mainstem bronchus. Microscopically, the mass consisted of neoplastic cells that were packeted into small nests and had strong granular cytoplasmic immunoreactivity to synaptophysin and chromogranin A. Cytoplasmic neurosecretory granules stained strongly by the Grimelius method. A diagnosis of obstructive neuroendocrine tumour was made.

Microbiologic and cytologic assessment of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from dogs with lower respiratory tract infection: 105 cases (2001-2011).

BACKGROUND: Documentation of lower respiratory tract infection has relied on microbiologic and cytologic findings in airway fluid, but there is no gold standard for making a definitive diagnosis. OBJECTIVE: To report cytologic and microbiologic findings in dogs diagnosed with lower respiratory tract infection through evaluation by bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage. ANIMALS: A total of 105 dogs with spontaneous respiratory disease. METHODS: Retrospective case review of all dogs identified through the electronic medical record database that had bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage performed between 2001 and 2011. Results of bronchoalveolar lavage cytology and microbiology were evaluated in 510 dogs, and 105 cases with septic, suppurative inflammation or bacterial growth from cultures were examined further. RESULTS: Bacteria were isolated from 89/105 aerobic cultures, 18/104 anaerobic cultures, and 30/99 Mycoplasma spp. cultures. The most common isolate was Mycoplasma spp. followed by Pasteurella sp., Bordetella sp, Enterobacteriaceae, and anaerobes. A single bacterial species was cultured from 44/99 dogs (44%) and multiple bacterial species were isolated from 55/99 dogs (56%). Suppurative inflammation with intracellular bacteria was identified cytologically in 78 of 105 dogs (74%). In 27 dogs that lacked cytologic evidence of sepsis, mixed (n = 18) and neutrophilic (n = 9) inflammation was reported, and Mycoplasma spp. (13/27) or Bordetella spp. (7/27) were most commonly isolated. Most aerobic bacteria were susceptible to routinely used antimicrobial drugs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Confirmation of lower respiratory tract infection in dogs is challenging and organisms can be isolated from dogs in which bacteria are not detected on cytologic examination.