A Brief Review of Anatomy Education in Korea, Encompassing Its Past, Present, and Future Direction.

Anatomy is a foundational subject in medicine and serves as its language. Hippocrates highlighted its importance, while Herophilus pioneered human dissection, earning him the title of the founder of anatomy. Vesalius later established modern anatomy, which has since evolved historically. In Korea, formal anatomy education for medical training began with the introduction of Western medicine during the late Joseon Dynasty. Before and after the Japanese occupation, anatomy education was conducted in the German style, and after liberation, it was maintained and developed by a small number of domestic anatomists. Medicine in Korea has grown alongside the country's rapid economic and social development. Today, 40 medical colleges produce world-class doctors to provide the best medical care service in the country. However, the societal demand for more doctors is growing in order to proactively address to challenges such as public healthcare issues, essential healthcare provision, regional medical service disparities, and an aging population. This study examines the history, current state, and challenges of anatomy education in Korea, emphasizing the availability of medical educators, support staff, and cadavers for gross anatomy instruction. While variations exist between Seoul and provincial medical colleges, each manages to deliver adequate education under challenging conditions. However, the rapid increase in medical student enrollment threatens to strain existing anatomy education resources, potentially compromising educational quality. To address these concerns, we propose strategies for training qualified gross anatomy educators, ensuring a sustainable cadaver supply, and enhancing infrastructure.

Thrombin Priming Promotes the Neuroprotective Effects of Human Wharton's Jelly-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Via the HGF/AKT/STAT3 Signaling Pathway.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) directly differentiate into neurons and endothelial cells after transplantation, and their secretome has considerable potential for treating brain injuries. Previous studies have suggested that the effects of MSCs priming with exposure to hypoxia, cytokines, growth factors, or chemical agents could optimize the paracrine potency and therapeutic potential of MSCs. Studies have suggested that thrombin-primed Wharton's Jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells (Th.WJ-MSCs) significantly enhance the neuroprotective beneficial effects of naive MSCs in brain injury such as hypoxic-ischemic brain injury (HIE) and intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH). This study aimed to characterize WJ-MSCs in terms of stem cell markers, differentiation, cell proliferation, and paracrine factors by comparing naive and Th.WJ-MSCs. We demonstrated that compared with naive MSCs, Th.MSCs significantly enhanced the neuroprotective effects in vitro. Moreover, we identified differentially expressed proteins in the conditioned media of naive and Th.WJ-MSCs by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Secretome analysis of the conditioned medium of WJ-MSCs revealed that such neuroprotective effects were mediated by paracrine effects with secretomes of Th.WJ-MSCs, and hepatocyte growth factor was identified as a key paracrine mediator. These results can be applied further in the preclinical and clinical development of effective and safe cell therapeutics for brain injuries such as HIE and IVH.

Effects of ethanol washing and storage duration on primary culture of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth.

Purpose: Since the oral environment harbors various microorganisms, the removal of contaminants during the primary culture process of stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHEDs) is very important. We investigated optimal methods for primary culture of SHEDs with minimal contamination rates. Materials and methods: Three different storage conditions for deciduous teeth were utilized:1) storing teeth in Hank's Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS) with 3% penicillin and streptomycin (P/S), 2) storing teeth in HBSS with 3% antibiotics and antimycotics (A-A), and 3) storing teeth in HBSS with A-A, and additional washing with 70% ethanol just before primary culture of dental pulp. In addition, the storage time from the extraction of teeth to the primary culture was measured. Results: The contamination rates were about 70% for HBSS with P/S, 40% for HBSS with A-A, and less than 10% for HBSS with A-A and additional washing with 70% ethanol. When the primary culture was conducted within 12 h after teeth extraction, the contamination rate was the lowest in all conditions. Furthermore, when the teeth were delivered in HBSS with A-A and an additional 70% ethanol washing was performed, the contamination rate was 0% until 48 h after teeth extraction. Ethanol washing had little effect on the cellular characteristics and stemness of SHEDs, including their morphology, growth rate, expression of surface markers, and differentiation potential. Conclusions: We suggested that both delivering teeth in HBSS with A-A and additional 70% ethanol washing are critical considerations for the successful culture of SHEDs without contamination.

Application of RapidHIT™ ID for cell authentication by fast and convenient STR profiling.

BACKGROUND: As cell therapies are injected directly into the body, cell authentication is essential. Short tandem repeat (STR) profiling is used for human identification in forensics as well as for cell authentication. The standard methodology (DNA extraction, quantification, polymerase chain reaction, and capillary electrophoresis) takes at least 6 h and requires several instruments to obtain an STR profile. RapidHIT™ ID is a single automated instrument that provides an STR profile in 90 min. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we aimed to propose a method to use RapidHIT™ ID for cell authentication. METHODS: Four types of cells which are used for cell therapy or in the production process were used. The sensitivity of STR profiling was compared by the cell type and cell count using RapidHIT™ ID. Moreover, the effect of preservation solutions, pre-treatment with cell lysis solution, proteinase K, Flinders Technology Associates (FTA) cards, and dried or wet cotton swabs (with a single cell type or a mixture of two) were examined. The results were compared to those obtained by the standard methodology using genetic analyzer ThermoFisher SeqStudio. RESULTS: We accomplished a high sensitivity through our proposed method that can benefit cytology laboratories. Although the pre-treatment process affected the quality of the STR profile, other variables did not significantly affect STR profiling. CONCLUSION: As a result of the experiment, RapidHIT™ ID can be used as a faster and simpler instrument for cell authentication.

Dopamine receptor D2 regulates glioblastoma survival and death through MET and death receptor 4/5.

Recent studies indicate that signaling molecules traditionally associated with central nervous system function play critical roles in cancer. Dopamine receptor signaling is implicated in various cancers including glioblastoma (GBM) and it is a recognized therapeutic target, as evidenced by recent clinical trials with a selective dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) inhibitor ONC201. Understanding the molecular mechanism(s) of the dopamine receptor signaling will be critical for development of potent therapeutic options. Using the human GBM patient-derived tumors treated with dopamine receptor agonists and antagonists, we identified the proteins that interact with DRD2. DRD2 signaling promotes glioblastoma (GBM) stem-like cells and GBM growth by activating MET. In contrast, pharmacological inhibition of DRD2 induces DRD2-TRAIL receptor interaction and subsequent cell death. Thus, our findings demonstrate a molecular circuitry of oncogenic DRD2 signaling in which MET and TRAIL receptors, critical factors for tumor cell survival and cell death, respectively, govern GBM survival and death. Finally, tumor-derived dopamine and expression of dopamine biosynthesis enzymes in a subset of GBM may guide patient stratification for DRD2 targeting therapy.

Advances in Neural Stem Cell Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury: Safety, Efficacy, and Future Perspectives.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating central nervous system injury that leads to severe disabilities in motor and sensory functions, causing significant deterioration in patients' quality of life. Owing to the complexity of SCI pathophysiology, there has been no effective treatment for reversing neural tissue damage and recovering neurological functions. Several novel therapies targeting different stages of pathophysiological mechanisms of SCI have been developed. Among these, treatments using stem cells have great potential for the regeneration of damaged neural tissues. In this review, we have summarized recent preclinical and clinical studies focusing on neural stem cells (NSCs). NSCs are multipotent cells with specific differentiation capabilities for neural lineage. Several preclinical studies have demonstrated the regenerative effects of transplanted NSCs in SCI animal models through both paracrine effects and direct neuronal differentiation, restoring synaptic connectivity and neural networks. Based on the positive results of several preclinical studies, phase I and II clinical trials using NSCs have been performed. Despite several hurdles and issues that need to be addressed in the clinical use of NSCs in patients with SCI, gradual progress in the technical development and therapeutic efficacy of NSCs treatments has enhanced the prospects for cell-based treatments in SCI.

JAK2/STAT3 pathway mediates neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic treatment effects of adult human neural stem cells in middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke animal models.

Mismatches between pre-clinical and clinical results of stem cell therapeutics for ischemic stroke limit their clinical applicability. To overcome these discrepancies, precise planning of pre-clinical experiments that can be translated to clinical trials and the scientific elucidation of treatment mechanisms is important. In this study, adult human neural stem cells (ahNSCs) derived from temporal lobe surgical samples were used (to avoid ethical and safety issues), and their therapeutic effects on ischemic stroke were examined using middle cerebral artery occlusion animal models. 5 × 105 ahNSCs was directly injected into the lateral ventricle of contralateral brain hemispheres of immune suppressed rat stroke models at the subacute phase of stroke. Compared with the mock-treated group, ahNSCs reduced brain tissue atrophy and neurological sensorimotor and memory functional loss. Tissue analysis demonstrated that the significant therapeutic effects were mediated by the neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic activities of ahNSCs, which preserved neurons in ischemic brain areas and decreased reactive astrogliosis and microglial activation. The neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic effects of ahNSCs were validated in in vitro stroke models and were induced by paracrine factors excreted by ahNSCs. When the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway was inhibited by a specific inhibitor, AG490, the paracrine neuroprotective and pro-angiogenic effects of ahNSCs were reversed. This pre-clinical study that closely simulated clinical settings and provided treatment mechanisms of ahNSCs for ischemic stroke may aid the development of protocols for subsequent clinical trials of ahNSCs and the realization of clinically available stem cell therapeutics for ischemic stroke.

The effects of early exercise in traumatic brain-injured rats with changes in motor ability, brain tissue, and biomarkers.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is brain damage which is caused by the impact of external mechanical forces. TBI can lead to the temporary or permanent impairment of physical and cognitive abilities, resulting in abnormal behavior. We recently observed that a single session of early exercise in animals with TBI improved their behavioral performance in the absence of other cognitive abnormalities. In the present study, we investigated the therapeutic effects of continuous exercise during the early stages of TBI in rats. We found that continuous low-intensity exercise in early-stage improves the locomotion recovery in the TBI of animal models; however, it does not significantly enhance short-term memory capabilities. Moreover, continuous early exercise not only reduces the protein expression of cerebral damage-related markers, such as Glial Fibrillary Acid Protein (GFAP), Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE), S100ß, Protein Gene Products 9.5 (PGP9.5), and Heat Shock Protein 70 (HSP70), but it also decreases the expression of apoptosis-related protein BAX and cleaved caspase 3. Furthermore, exercise training in animals with TBI decreases the microglia activation and the expression of inflammatory cytokines in the serum, such as CCL20, IL-13, IL-1α, and IL-1ß. These findings thus demonstrate that early exercise therapy for TBI may be an effective strategy in improving physiological function, and that serum protein levels are useful biomarkers for the predicition of the effectiveness of early exercise therapy.[BMB Reports 2022; 55(10): 506-511].

Functional validation of the simplified in vitro 3D Co-culture based BBB model.

Various methods of generating 2D and 3D in vitro blood-brain barrier (BBB) models have previously been published with the objective of developing therapeutics for brain diseases. In general, published methods including our published method demonstrate that in vivo-like semi-permeable barrier can be generated. To further verify that an in vitro BBB model closely represents BBB, functional validation is required. Here, we functionally validate our in vitro 3D BBB model using rituximab as a representative therapeutic antibody and previously published anti-TfR (transferrin receptor) antibodies as representative BBB-penetrating antibodies. We demonstrate that our BBB model can efficiently block rituximab while allowing receptor-mediated transcytosis (RMT) of anti-TfR antibodies. In addition, we showed that RMT efficacy of anti-TfR antibodies with different binding affinity can be displayed using our BBB model. In conclusion, this demonstrates that our BBB model functionally mimics the BBB as well as having BBB-like physical properties, further establishing our BBB model as a screening tool for discovery and development of therapeutics for brain diseases.

Simplified in vitro 3D co-culture-based blood-brain barrier model using transwell.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major hurdle for treatment of brain diseases. To overcome this, precise and reproducible BBB model is one of the key factors for successful evaluation of BBB-penetrating efficacy of developmental drugs. Thus, in vitro BBB model recapitulating the physiological structure of the BBB is a valuable tool for drug discovery and development for brain diseases. Here, we develop a simplified 3D co-culture-based BBB model using immortalized human brain endothelial cells and immortalized human astrocytes mixed with Matrigel allowing model preparation within 30 min. We directly compare our 3D BBB model to a 2D BBB model comprised solely of immortalized brain endothelial cells, to demonstrate that our 3D BBB model blocks penetration of Dextran molecules with various molecular weights, remain durable and impermeable even in a BBB-degrading condition, and rapidly form tight junctions while the 2D BBB model do not. In conclusion, this establishes our simplified 3D BBB model as a valuable tool for high throughput screening of drug candidates for brain diseases.

Significant Therapeutic Effects of Adult Human Neural Stem Cells for Spinal Cord Injury Are Mediated by Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1).

The limited capability of regeneration in the human central nervous system leads to severe and permanent disabilities following spinal cord injury (SCI) while patients suffer from no viable treatment option. Adult human neural stem cells (ahNSCs) are unique cells derived from the adult human brain, which have the essential characteristics of NSCs. The objective of this study was to characterize the therapeutic effects of ahNSCs isolated from the temporal lobes of focal cortical dysplasia type IIIa for SCI and to elucidate their treatment mechanisms. Results showed that the recovery of motor functions was significantly improved in groups transplanted with ahNSCs, where, in damaged regions of spinal cords, the numbers of both spread and regenerated nerve fibers were observed to be higher than the vehicle group. In addition, the distance between neuronal nuclei in damaged spinal cord tissue was significantly closer in treatment groups than the vehicle group. Based on an immunohistochemistry analysis, those neuroprotective effects of ahNSCs in SCI were found to be mediated by inhibiting apoptosis of spinal cord neurons. Moreover, the analysis of the conditioned medium (CM) of ahNSCs revealed that such neuroprotective effects were mediated by paracrine effects with various types of cytokines released from ahNSCs, where monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1, also known as CCL2) was identified as a key paracrine mediator. These results of ahNSCs could be utilized further in the preclinical and clinical development of effective and safe cell therapeutics for SCI, with no available therapeutic options at present.

Thrombin Preconditioning Improves the Therapeutic Efficacy of Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Severe Intraventricular Hemorrhage Induced Neonatal Rats.

Severe intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) remains a major cause of high mortality and morbidity in extremely preterm infants. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) transplantation is a possible therapeutic option, and development of therapeutics with enhanced efficacy is necessary. This study investigated whether thrombin preconditioning improves the therapeutic efficacy of human Wharton's jelly-derived MSC transplantation for severe neonatal IVH, using a rat model. Severe neonatal IVH was induced by injecting 150 µL blood into each lateral ventricle on postnatal day (P) 4 in Sprague-Dawley rats. After 2 days (P6), naïve MSCs or thrombin-preconditioned MSCs (1 × 105/10 µL) were transplanted intraventricularly. After behavioral tests, brain tissues and cerebrospinal fluid of P35 rats were obtained for histological and biochemical analyses, respectively. Thrombin-preconditioned MSC transplantation significantly reduced IVH-induced ventricular dilatation on in vivo magnetic resonance imaging, which was coincident with attenuations of reactive gliosis, cell death, and the number of activated microglia and levels of inflammatory cytokines after IVH induction, compared to naïve MSC transplantation. In the behavioral tests, the sensorimotor and memory functions significantly improved after transplantation of thrombin-preconditioned MSCs, compared to naïve MSCs. Overall, thrombin preconditioning significantly improves the therapeutic potential and more effectively attenuates brain injury, including progressive ventricular dilatation, gliosis, cell death, inflammation, and neurobehavioral functional impairment, in newborn rats with induced severe IVH than does naïve MSC transplantation.

Combination stem cell therapy using dental pulp stem cells and human umbilical vein endothelial cells for critical hindlimb ischemia.

Narrowing of arteries supplying blood to the limbs provokes critical hindlimb ischemia (CLI). Although CLI results in irreversible sequelae, such as amputation, few therapeutic options induce the formation of new functional blood vessels. Based on the proangiogenic potentials of stem cells, in this study, it was examined whether a combination of dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) could result in enhanced therapeutic effects of stem cells for CLI compared with those of DPSCs or HUVECs alone. The DPSCs+ HUVECs combination therapy resulted in significantly higher blood flow and lower ischemia damage than DPSCs or HUVECs alone. The improved therapeutic effects in the DPSCs+ HUVECs group were accompanied by a significantly higher number of microvessels in the ischemic tissue than in the other groups. In vitro proliferation and tube formation assay showed that VEGF in the conditioned media of DPSCs induced proliferation and vessel-like tube formation of HUVECs. Altogether, our results demonstrated that the combination of DPSCs and HUVECs had significantly better therapeutic effects on CLI via VEGF-mediated crosstalk. This combinational strategy could be used to develop novel clinical protocols for CLI proangiogenic regenerative treatments. [BMB Reports 2022; 55(7): 336-341].

Effects of Long-Term In Vitro Expansion on Genetic Stability and Tumor Formation Capacity of Stem Cells.

Stem cell therapeutics are emerging as novel alternative treatments for various neurodegenerative diseases based on their regenerative potentials. However, stem cell transplantation might have side effects such as tumor formation that limit their clinical applications. Especially, in vitro expansion of stem cells might provoke genetic instability and tumorigenic potential. To address this issue, we analyzed genomic alterations of adult human multipotent neural cells (ahMNCs), a type of human adult neural stem cells, after a long-term in vitro culture process (passage 15) using sensitive analysis techniques including karyotyping, array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH), and whole exome sequencing (WES). Although karyotyping did not find any major abnormalities in chromosomal number or structure, diverse copy number variations (CNVs) and genetic mutations were detected by aCGH and WES in all five independent ahMNCs. However, the number of CNVs and genetic mutations did not increase and many of them did not persist as in vitro culture progressed. Although most observed CNVs and genetic mutations were not shared by all five ahMNCs, nonsynonymous missense mutations at MUC4 were found in three out of five long-term cultured ahMNC lines. The genetic instability did not confer in vivo tumorigenic potential to ahMNCs. Collectively, these results indicate that, although genetic instability can be induced by long-term in vitro expansion of stem cells, it is not sufficient to fully exert tumor formation capacity of stem cells. Other functional effects of such genetic instability need to be further elucidated.

Adult Human Multipotent Neural Cells Could Be Distinguished from Other Cell Types by Proangiogenic Paracrine Effects via MCP-1 and GRO.

Adult human multipotent neural cells (ahMNCs) are unique cells derived from adult human temporal lobes. They show multipotent differentiation potentials into neurons and astrocytes. In addition, they possess proangiogenic capacities. The objective of this study was to characterize ahMNCs in terms of expression of cell type-specific markers, in vitro differentiation potentials, and paracrine factors compared with several other cell types including fetal neural stem cells (fNSCs) to provide detailed molecular and functional features of ahMNCs. Interestingly, the expression of cell type-specific markers of ahMNCs could not be differentiated from those of pericytes, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), or fNSCs. In contrast, differentiation potentials of ahMNCs and fNSCs into neural cells were higher than those of other cell types. Compared with MSCs, ahMNCs showed lower differentiation capacities into osteogenic and adipogenic cells. Moreover, ahMNCs uniquely expressed higher levels of MCP-1 and GRO family paracrine factors than fNSCs and MSCs. These high levels of MCP-1 and GRO family mediated in vivo proangiogenic effects of ahMNCs. These results indicate that ahMNCs have their own distinct characteristics that could distinguish ahMNCs from other cell types. Characteristics of ahMNCs could be utilized further in the preclinical and clinical development of ahMNCs for regenerative medicine. They could also be used as experimental references for other cell types including fNSCs.

Optimal Preclinical Conditions for Using Adult Human Multipotent Neural Cells in the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury.

Stem cell-based therapeutics are amongst the most promising next-generation therapeutic approaches for the treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI), as they may promote the repair or regeneration of damaged spinal cord tissues. However, preclinical optimization should be performed before clinical application to guarantee safety and therapeutic effect. Here, we investigated the optimal injection route and dose for adult human multipotent neural cells (ahMNCs) from patients with hemorrhagic stroke using an SCI animal model. ahMNCs demonstrate several characteristics associated with neural stem cells (NSCs), including the expression of NSC-specific markers, self-renewal, and multi neural cell lineage differentiation potential. When ahMNCs were transplanted into the lateral ventricle of the SCI animal model, they specifically migrated within 24 h of injection to the damaged spinal cord, where they survived for at least 5 weeks after injection. Although ahMNC transplantation promoted significant locomotor recovery, the injection dose was shown to influence treatment outcomes, with a 1 × 106 (medium) dose of ahMNCs producing significantly better functional recovery than a 3 × 105 (low) dose. There was no significant gain in effect with the 3 × 106 ahMNCs dose. Histological analysis suggested that ahMNCs exert their effects by modulating glial scar formation, neuroprotection, and/or angiogenesis. These data indicate that ahMNCs from patients with hemorrhagic stroke could be used to develop stem cell therapies for SCI and that the indirect injection route could be clinically relevant. Moreover, the optimal transplantation dose of ahMNCs defined in this preclinical study might be helpful in calculating its optimal injection dose for patients with SCI in the future.

Challenging Microvascular Decompression Surgery for Hemifacial Spasm.

OBJECTIVE: Microvascular decompression (MVD) is the most effective treatment for hemifacial spasm (HFS). However, surgical difficulties due to complex anatomy or revision surgery can endanger the functional integrity of the brainstem. We describe surgically challenging cases and provide operative guidance that may be helpful for neurosurgeons who perform MVDs. METHODS: Of 3028 patients with HFS who underwent MVDs consecutively by a single neurosurgeon, complex or unusual cases associated with surgical difficulty were selected. Medical charts and images were reviewed, with the primary focus being intraoperative findings, operative techniques, and clinical outcomes. All MVDs were performed using the interposition method. RESULTS: Surgically difficult cases were categorized into six types: tandem, perforator, atypical location, encircling, revision, and penetrating types. During the follow-up period (11.5-42.7 months; median 24.9 months), the spasm-free rate was 88.4%. Intraoperative changes in brainstem auditory evoked potentials were observed in 31.5% of patients. Immediate postoperative facial palsy and deafness were observed in 6.0% and 1.5% of patients, respectively. Revision surgery showed the highest surgical morbidity among the unusual HFS types. Detailed illustrations and descriptions of MVD in patients with surgically challenging HFS are provided. CONCLUSIONS: Complex or unusual HFS types carry higher surgical risks in MVD. Neurosurgeons performing MVDs need to be prepared to manage complex HFS cases in order to achieve favorable clinical outcomes.

Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals the tumor microenvironment and facilitates strategic choices to circumvent treatment failure in a chemorefractory bladder cancer patient.

BACKGROUND: Tumor cell-intrinsic mechanisms and complex interactions with the tumor microenvironment contribute to therapeutic failure via tumor evolution. It may be possible to overcome treatment resistance by developing a personalized approach against relapsing cancers based on a comprehensive analysis of cell type-specific transcriptomic changes over the clinical course of the disease using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). METHODS: Here, we used scRNA-seq to depict the tumor landscape of a single case of chemo-resistant metastatic, muscle-invasive urothelial bladder cancer (MIUBC) addicted to an activating Harvey rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (HRAS) mutation. In order to analyze tumor evolution and microenvironmental changes upon treatment, we also applied scRNA-seq to the corresponding patient-derived xenograft (PDX) before and after treatment with tipifarnib, a HRAS-targeting agent under clinical evaluation. RESULTS: In the parallel analysis of the human MIUBC and the PDX, diverse stromal and immune cell populations recapitulated the cellular composition in the human and mouse tumor microenvironment. Treatment with tipifarnib showed dramatic anticancer effects but was unable to achieve a complete response. Importantly, the comparative scRNA-seq analysis between pre- and post-tipifarnib-treated PDX revealed the nature of tipifarnib-refractory tumor cells and the tumor-supporting microenvironment. Based on the upregulation of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) in surviving tumor cells, and the accumulation of multiple immune-suppressive subsets from post-tipifarnib-treated PDX, a PD-L1 inhibitor, atezolizumab, was clinically applied; this resulted in a favorable response from the patient with acquired resistance to tipifarnib. CONCLUSION: We presented a single case report demonstrating the power of scRNA-seq for visualizing the tumor microenvironment and identifying molecular and cellular therapeutic targets in a treatment-refractory cancer patient.