Alpha radiation from polymetallic nodules and potential health risks from deep-sea mining.

In search for critical elements, polymetallic nodules at the deep abyssal seafloor are targeted for mining operations. Nodules efficiently scavenge and retain several naturally occurring uranium-series radioisotopes, which predominantly emit alpha radiation during decay. Here, we present new data on the activity concentrations of thorium-230, radium-226, and protactinium-231, as well as on the release of radon-222 in and from nodules from the NE Pacific Ocean. In line with abundantly published data from historic studies, we demonstrate that the activity concentrations for several alpha emitters are often higher than 5 Bq g-1 at the surface of the nodules. These observed values can exceed current exemption levels by up to a factor of 1000, and even entire nodules commonly exceed these limits. Exemption levels are in place for naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) such as ores and slags, to protect the public and to ensure occupational health and radiation safety. In this context, we discuss three ways of radiation exposure from nodules, including the inhalation or ingestion of nodule fines, the inhalation of radon gas in enclosed spaces and the potential concentration of some radioisotopes during nodule processing. Seen in this light, inappropriate handling of polymetallic nodules poses serious health risks.

SARS-CoV-2 Exposure in Norway Rats (Rattus norvegicus) from New York City.

Millions of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) inhabit New York City (NYC), presenting the potential for transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from humans to rats. We evaluated SARS-CoV-2 exposure among 79 rats captured from NYC during the fall of 2021. Our results showed that 13 of the 79 rats (16.5%) tested IgG- or IgM-positive, and partial SARS-CoV-2 genomes were recovered from all 4 rats that were qRT-PCR (reverse transcription-quantitative PCR)-positive. Genomic analyses suggest these viruses were associated with genetic lineage B, which was predominant in NYC in the spring of 2020 during the early pandemic period. To further investigate rat susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 variants, we conducted a virus challenge study and showed that Alpha, Delta, and Omicron variants can cause infections in wild-type Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, including high replication levels in the upper and lower respiratory tracts and induction of both innate and adaptive immune responses. Additionally, the Delta variant resulted in the highest infectivity. In summary, our results indicate that rats are susceptible to infection with Alpha, Delta, and Omicron variants, and wild Norway rats in the NYC municipal sewer systems have been exposed to SARS-CoV-2. Our findings highlight the need for further monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 in urban rat populations and for evaluating the potential risk of secondary zoonotic transmission from these rat populations back to humans. IMPORTANCE The host tropism expansion of SARS-CoV-2 raises concern for the potential risk of reverse-zoonotic transmission of emerging variants into rodent species, including wild rat species. In this study, we present both genetic and serological evidence for SARS-CoV-2 exposure to the New York City wild rat population, and these viruses may be linked to the viruses that were circulating during the early stages of the pandemic. We also demonstrated that rats are susceptible to additional variants (i.e., Alpha, Delta, and Omicron) that have been predominant in humans and that susceptibility to infection varies by variant. Our findings highlight the reverse zoonosis of SARS-CoV-2 to urban rats and the need for further monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 in rat populations for potential secondary zoonotic transmission to humans.

SARS-CoV-2 exposure in Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) from New York City.

Millions of Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) inhabit New York City (NYC), presenting the potential for transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to rats and other wildlife. We evaluated SARS-CoV-2 exposure among 79 rats captured from NYC during the fall of 2021. Results showed that 13 of 79 rats (16.5%) tested IgG or IgM positive, and partial genomes of SARS-CoV-2 were recovered from four rats that were qRT-PCR positive. Using a virus challenge study, we also showed that Alpha, Delta, and Omicron variants can cause robust infections in wild-type Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, including high level replications in the upper and lower respiratory tracts and induction of both innate and adaptive immune responses. Additionally, the Delta variant resulted in the highest infectivity. In summary, our results indicated that rats are susceptible to infection with Alpha, Delta, and Omicron variants, and rats in the NYC municipal sewer systems have been exposed to SARS-CoV-2. Our findings highlight the potential risk of secondary zoonotic transmission from urban rats and the need for further monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 in those populations.

Radon (222Rn) as tracer for submarine groundwater discharge investigation-limitations of the approach at shallow wind-exposed coastal settings.

Mapping radon (222Rn) distribution patterns in the coastal sea is a widely applied method for localizing and quantifying submarine groundwater discharge (SGD). While the literature reports a wide range of successful case studies, methodical problems that might occur in shallow wind-exposed coastal settings are generally neglected. This paper evaluates causes and effects that resulted in a failure of the radon approach at a distinct shallow wind-exposed location in the Baltic Sea. Based on a simple radon mass balance model, we discuss the effect of both wind speed and wind direction as causal for this failure. We show that at coastal settings, which are dominated by gentle submarine slopes and shallow waters, both parameters have severe impact on coastal radon distribution patterns, thus impeding their use for SGD investigation. In such cases, the radon approach needs necessarily to allow for the impact of wind speed and wind direction not only during but also prior to the field campaign.

EFFECT OF STORAGE TIME AND STORAGE CONDITIONS ON ANTIBODY DETECTION IN BLOOD SAMPLES COLLECTED ON FILTER PAPER.

Using filter paper to collect blood from wildlife for antibody analysis can be a powerful technique to simplify the collection, transport, and storage of blood samples. Despite these advantages, there are limited data that detail how long these samples can be stored and how storage conditions affect antibody longevity. We used blood samples collected on filter paper from coyotes experimentally infected with Yersinia pestis to determine optimum sample storage conditions over time. Blood samples collected on filter paper were stored for 454 d or more in four groups: 1) at ambient temperature and at ambient relative humidity, 2) at ambient temperature with desiccant, 3) at 4 C with desiccant, and 4) at -20 C with desiccant. Samples stored at 4 C or -20 C with desiccant had detectable antibody for a longer period of time than the samples stored at room temperature.

Viremia in North American Mammals and Birds After Experimental Infection with Chikungunya Viruses.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an arthropod-borne virus, which is known to cause severe disease only in humans. To investigate its potential zoonotic host range and evaluate reservoir competence among these hosts, experimental infections were performed on individuals from nine avian and 12 mammalian species representing both domestic and wild animals common to North America. Hamsters and inbred mice have previously been shown to develop viremia after inoculation with CHIKV and were used as positive controls for infection. Aside from big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus), none of the mammals or birds developed detectable viremia or overt clinical disease. However, most mammals and a smaller proportion of birds developed neutralizing antibody responses to CHIKV. On the basis of these results, it seems unlikely that CHIKV poses a significant health threat to most domestic animals or wildlife and that the species examined do not likely contribute to natural transmission cycles. Additional studies should further evaluate bats and wild rodents as potential reservoir hosts for CHIKV transmission during human epidemics.

Host-specific parvovirus evolution in nature is recapitulated by in vitro adaptation to different carnivore species.

Canine parvovirus (CPV) emerged as a new pandemic pathogen of dogs in the 1970s and is closely related to feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), a parvovirus of cats and related carnivores. Although both viruses have wide host ranges, analysis of viral sequences recovered from different wild carnivore species, as shown here, demonstrated that>95% were derived from CPV-like viruses, suggesting that CPV is dominant in sylvatic cycles. Many viral sequences showed host-specific mutations in their capsid proteins, which were often close to sites known to control binding to the transferrin receptor (TfR), the host receptor for these carnivore parvoviruses, and which exhibited frequent parallel evolution. To further examine the process of host adaptation, we passaged parvoviruses with alternative backgrounds in cells from different carnivore hosts. Specific mutations were selected in several viruses and these differed depending on both the background of the virus and the host cells in which they were passaged. Strikingly, these in vitro mutations recapitulated many specific changes seen in viruses from natural populations, strongly suggesting they are host adaptive, and which were shown to result in fitness advantages over their parental virus. Comparison of the sequences of the transferrin receptors of the different carnivore species demonstrated that many mutations occurred in and around the apical domain where the virus binds, indicating that viral variants were likely selected through their fit to receptor structures. Some of the viruses accumulated high levels of variation upon passage in alternative hosts, while others could infect multiple different hosts with no or only a few additional mutations. Overall, these studies demonstrate that the evolutionary history of a virus, including how long it has been circulating and in which hosts, as well as its phylogenetic background, has a profound effect on determining viral host range.

Large-scale avian influenza surveillance in wild birds throughout the United States.

Avian influenza is a viral disease that primarily infects wild and domestic birds, but it also can be transmitted to a variety of mammals. In 2006, the United States of America Departments of Agriculture and Interior designed a large-scale, interagency surveillance effort that sought to determine if highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses were present in wild bird populations within the United States of America. This program, combined with the Canadian and Mexican surveillance programs, represented the largest, coordinated wildlife disease surveillance program ever implemented. Here we analyze data from 197,885 samples that were collected from over 200 wild bird species. While the initial motivation for surveillance focused on highly pathogenic avian influenza, the scale of the data provided unprecedented information on the ecology of avian influenza viruses in the United States, avian influenza virus host associations, and avian influenza prevalence in wild birds over time. Ultimately, significant advances in our knowledge of avian influenza will depend on both large-scale surveillance efforts and on focused research studies.

Diffusion of influenza viruses among migratory birds with a focus on the Southwest United States.

The Southwest United States, including Arizona and New Mexico, has a diverse climate and is home to many different avian species. We sequenced the hemagglutinin (HA) gene of twenty influenza specimens for the years 2007-2009. This included four from Arizona, and sixteen from New Mexico. We analyzed the sequences and determined the following HA subtypes: H3, H4, H6, H8, and H11. For each subtype, we combined our virus sequences with those from a public database, and inferred phylogeographic models of influenza diffusion. Statistical phylogeography indicated that overall evolutionary diffusion of avian influenza viruses is geographically structured (p<0.05). In addition, we found that diffusion to the Southwest was often from nearby states including California. For H3, H4 and H6, the intra-flyway gene flow rates were significantly (p<0.001) higher than those of inter-flyway. Such rate difference was also observed in H8 and H11, yet, without statistical significance (p=0.132, p=0.190, respectively). Excluding any one flyway from the calculation generated similar results, suggesting that such barrier effect on gene flow rates is not exclusively produced by any single flyway. We also calculated the Bayes factor test for the significant non-zero rates between states and identified significant routes both within and across flyways. Such inter-flyway spread of influenza was probably the result of birds from four flyways co-mingling on breeding grounds in northern regions or marshaling on staging areas post breeding in Canada or Alaska, before moving south each fall. This study provides an initial analysis of evolutionary diffusion of avian influenza virus to and from the Southwest United States. However, more sequences from this region need to be generated to determine the role of host migration and other factors on influenza diffusion.

Avian influenza infection alters fecal odor in mallards.

Changes in body odor are known to be a consequence of many diseases. Much of the published work on disease-related and body odor changes has involved parasites and certain cancers. Much less studied have been viral diseases, possibly due to an absence of good animal model systems. Here we studied possible alteration of fecal odors in animals infected with avian influenza viruses (AIV). In a behavioral study, inbred C57BL/6 mice were trained in a standard Y-maze to discriminate odors emanating from feces collected from mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) infected with low-pathogenic avian influenza virus compared to fecal odors from non-infected controls. Mice could discriminate odors from non-infected compared to infected individual ducks on the basis of fecal odors when feces from post-infection periods were paired with feces from pre-infection periods. Prompted by this indication of odor change, fecal samples were subjected to dynamic headspace and solvent extraction analyses employing gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to identify chemical markers indicative of AIV infection. Chemical analyses indicated that AIV infection was associated with a marked increase of acetoin (3-hydroxy-2-butanone) in feces. These experiments demonstrate that information regarding viral infection exists via volatile metabolites present in feces. Further, they suggest that odor changes following virus infection could play a role in regulating behavior of conspecifics exposed to infected individuals.

Frequent cross-species transmission of parvoviruses among diverse carnivore hosts.

Although parvoviruses are commonly described in domestic carnivores, little is known about their biodiversity in nondomestic species. A phylogenetic analysis of VP2 gene sequences from puma, coyote, gray wolf, bobcat, raccoon, and striped skunk revealed two major groups related to either feline panleukopenia virus ("FPV-like") or canine parvovirus ("CPV-like"). Cross-species transmission was commonplace, with multiple introductions into each host species but, with the exception of raccoons, relatively little evidence for onward transmission in nondomestic species.

Immunological and clinical response of coyotes (Canis latrans) to experimental inoculation with Yersinia pestis.

Multiple publications have reported the use of coyotes (Canis latrans) in animal-based surveillance efforts for the detection of Yersinia pestis. Coyotes are likely exposed via flea bite or oral routes and are presumed to be resistant to the development of clinical disease. These historic data have only been useful for the evaluation of the geographic distribution of Y. pestis in the landscape. Because the canid immunologic response to Y. pestis has not been thoroughly characterized, we conducted experimental inoculation of captive-reared, juvenile coyotes (n = 8) with Y. pestis CO92 via oral or intradermal routes. We measured the humoral response to Y. pestis fraction 1 capsular protein (anti-F1) and found a significant difference between inoculation groups in magnitude and duration of antibody production. The anti-F1 titers in animals exposed intradermally peaked at day 10 postinoculation (PI; range = 1∶32 to 1∶128) with titers remaining stable at 1∶32 through week 12. In contrast, orally inoculated animals developed higher titers (range = 1∶256 to 1∶1,024) that remained stable at 1∶256 to 1∶512 through week 6. No clinical signs of disease were observed, and minimal changes were noted in body temperature, white blood cell counts, and acute phase proteins during the 7 days PI. Gross pathology was unremarkable, and minimal changes were noted in histopathology at days 3 and 7 PI. Rechallenge at 14 wk PI via similar dosage and routes resulted in marked differences in antibody response between groups. Animals in the orally inoculated group produced a striking increase in anti-F1 titers (up to 1∶4,096) within 3 days, whereas there was minimal to no increase in antibody response in the intradermal group. Information gathered from this experimental trial may provide additional insight into the spatial and temporal evaluation of coyote plague serology.

[Prehospital treatment of intoxications with euphorizing drugs]. / Præhospital behandling af forgiftninger med euforiserende stoffer.

Acute intoxications are frequently seen in the prehospital setting and are often either a mixture of multiple drugs or supplemented with other drugs such as alcohol or marihuana. In contrast to the in-hospital setting, where intoxications can be detected with blood, sweat or urine tests, the prehospital physician may need to act on the symptomatology rather than the aetiology. Symptoms can be divided into two main groups depending on whether they are promoting or inhibiting vital functions. This article gives an update on management of intoxications with central stimulants in the prehospital setting.

North American birds as potential amplifying hosts of Japanese encephalitis virus.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is an emerging arbovirus, and inter-continental spread is an impending threat. The virus is maintained in a transmission cycle between mosquito vectors and vertebrate hosts, including birds. We detected variation in interspecies responses among North American birds to infection with strains of two different JEV genotypes (I and III). Several native North American passerine species and ring-billed gulls had the highest average peak viremia titers after inoculation with a Vietnamese (genotype I) JEV strain. Oral JEV shedding was minimal and cloacal shedding was rarely detected. The majority of birds, both viremic (72 of 74; 97.3%) and non-viremic (31 of 37; 83.8%), seroconverted by 14 days post-inoculation and West Nile virus-immune individuals had cross-protection against JEV viremia. Reservoir competence and serologic data for a variety of avian taxa are important for development of JEV surveillance and control strategies and will aid in understanding transmission ecology in the event of JEV expansion to North America.

Response of captive skunks to microencapsulated tetracycline.

A captive striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) study was conducted between February and June 2004 at the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. The main objective was to determine the percentage of adult striped skunks that were marked after consuming placebo oral rabies vaccine (ORV) baits containing 100 mg of an experimental microencapsulated (coated microparticle) tetracycline hydrochloride biomarker. Biomarkers were identified in the canine teeth and mandibles of five of five skunks that consumed an ORV bait. A second objective was to determine if the microencapsulated tetracycline was resistant to photochemical conversion from tetracycline to epitetracycline. After 15 days of exposure, conversion from tetracycline to epitetracycline concentration in the microencapsulated product (mean 1.9% conversion, SD=1.24) was significantly less (P=0.006) than the pure-grade tetracycline powder (mean 7.5% conversion, SD=1.37). Results support the use of microencapsulated tetracycline hydrochloride as a biomarker in circumstances where the use of conventional powdered tetracycline hydrochloride is not feasible due to ORV bait design constraints.

Retinal arterioles have impaired reactivity to hyperoxia in type 1 diabetes.

PURPOSE: Diabetes has adverse effects on the retinal microvasculature. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of inhalation of hypoxic, hyperoxic and normoxic-hypercapnic gas mixtures on retinal vessel diameter in people with and without diabetes. METHODS: Sixty-one participants (aged 24-50 years) 29 with (male : female ratio 2.6 : 1) and 32 without (male : female ratio 0.7 : 1) diabetes, inhaled hypoxic, hyperoxic and normoxic-hypercapnic gas mixtures for 3-5 mins. The diameters of arterioles and venules were measured using digital retinal images taken before and after gas inhalation. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the diameters of arterioles and venules prior to gas inhalation in people with and without diabetes. Inhalation of the hyperoxic gas mixture caused a statistically significant decrease in arteriolar and venular diameters without altering mean arterial pressure significantly. Arteriolar vasoconstriction in response to the hyperoxic gas mixture was significantly reduced in people with diabetes (3.95% versus 7.75%; p = 0.04), but venular vasoconstriction did not differ significantly. A hypoxic gas mixture caused increased arteriolar and venular diameter and a normoxic-hypercapnic gas mixture had no significant effect on vessel diameter. Responses to hypoxic and normoxic-hypercapnic gas did not differ significantly between diabetes and non-diabetes subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Type 1 diabetes impairs retinal arteriolar responses to hyperoxia. Abnormalities in retinal arteriolar reactivity in response to oxygen may play a role in the development of diabetic retinopathy and this technique may represent a simple means of identifying early abnormalities in the reactivity of retinal arterioles in diabetes.

Surveillance for highly pathogenic avian influenza in wild birds in the USA.

As part of the USA's National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza, an Interagency Strategic Plan for the Early Detection of Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Avian Influenza in Wild Migratory Birds was developed and implemented. From 1 April 2006 through 31 March 2009, 261,946 samples from wild birds and 101,457 wild bird fecal samples were collected in the USA; no highly pathogenic avian influenza was detected. The United States Department of Agriculture, and state and tribal cooperators accounted for 213,115 (81%) of the wild bird samples collected; 31, 27, 21 and 21% of the samples were collected from the Atlantic, Pacific, Central and Mississippi flyways, respectively. More than 250 species of wild birds in all 50 states were sampled. The majority of wild birds (86%) were dabbling ducks, geese, swans and shorebirds. The apparent prevalence of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses during biological years 2007 and 2008 was 9.7 and 11.0%, respectively. The apparent prevalence of H5 and H7 subtypes across all species sampled were 0.5 and 0.06%, respectively. The pooled fecal samples (n= 101,539) positive for low pathogenic avian influenza were 4.0, 6.7 and 4.7% for biological years 2006, 2007 and 2008, respectively. The highly pathogenic early detection system for wild birds developed and implemented in the USA represents the largest coordinated wildlife disease surveillance system ever conducted. This effort provided evidence that wild birds in the USA were free of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (given the expected minimum prevalence of 0.001%) at the 99.9% confidence level during the surveillance period.

Determination of diphacinone residues in Hawaiian invertebrates.

A reversed-phase ion-pair liquid chromatographic analysis combined with a solid-phase extraction clean-up method is used to assess the quantity of diphacinone residue found in invertebrates. Three invertebrate species are exposed to commercially available diphacinone-fortified bait used for rat control. The invertebrate samples are collected, frozen, and shipped to the laboratory. The samples are homogenized after cryogenic freezing. A portion of the homogenized samples are extracted with acidified chloroform-acetone, followed by cleanup with a silica solid-phase extraction column. Diphacinone is detected by UV absorption at 325 nm after separation by the chromatographic system. The method limit of detection (MLOD) for snail and slug samples averaged 0.055 and 0.066 mg/kg, respectively. Diphacinone residues in snail tissue ranges from 0.83 to 2.5 mg/kg for Oxychilus spp. The mean recoveries from snails at 0.20 and 2.0 are 97 +/- 21% and 84 +/- 6%. Diphacinone residues in slug tissue ranges from 1.3 to 4.0 mg/kg for Deroceras laeve and < MLOD to 1.8 mg/kg for Limax maximus, respectively. The mean recoveries from slugs at 0.20 and 2.0 mg/kg are 91% +/- 15% and 86% +/- 5%.

Probabilistic model for estimating field mortality of target and non-target bird populations when simultaneously exposed to avicide bait.

A probabilistic model was developed to estimate target and non-target avian mortality associated with the application of the avicide CPTH (3-chloro-p-toluidine hydrochloride) to minimize sprouting rice damage in the southern USA. CPTH exposures for individual birds were predicted by random sampling from species-specific non-parametric distributions of bait seed consumption and CPTH residues detected on individual bait seeds. Mortality was predicted from the species-specific exposure versus mortality relationship. Individual variations in this response were captured in the model by Monte Carlo sampling from species-specific distributions of slopes and median toxicity values (LD50) for each bird. The model was used to simultaneously predict mortality (percentage of exposed population and number of birds killed/weight of consumed bait) for a target (blackbird) and non-target (mourning dove) species feeding on bait sites for up to five consecutive days.

4,4'-Dinitrocarbanilide (DNC) concentrations in egg shells as a predictor of nicarbazin consumption and DNC dose in goose eggs.

Nicarbazin is being investigated as an infertility agent for the control of non-migratory Canada geese (Branta canadensis L) populations. Nicarbazin is presently registered for use as a coccidiostat for poultry. Geese fed sufficient quantities of nicarbazin will lay non-viable eggs. We established nicarbazin consumption by measuring the concentration of a component of the formulation, 4,4'-dinitrocarbanilide (DNC) in the egg contents (yolk, albumin) in non-viable eggs. To estimate the nicarbazin consumption of birds that laid viable eggs (eggs that hatched or contained an embryo), a high-performance liquid chromatography method was developed to measure the concentration of DNC in egg shells. A statistically significant correlation was established using linear regression between the mean concentrations of DNC in the egg shell and in the egg contents in non-viable eggs. Viable eggs were estimated to contain lower levels of DNC than non-viable eggs. DNC concentrations in both the egg contents and the egg shell increased with increases in nicarbazin dose in feed. Our method allows for the estimation of nicarbazin consumption and DNC dose in eggs under field conditions, which is important in developing an effective infertility agent for over-abundant non-migratory goose populations.