Genetic Characterization of Small Ruminant Lentiviruses Isolated from Dairy Sheep in Greece.

The high genetic heterogeneity of small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLV) renders the genetic characterization of the circulating strains crucial for the epidemiological investigation and the designation of effective diagnostic tools. In Greece, research data regarding the genetic diversity of the circulating SRLV strains is scarce, hindering the implementation of efficient surveillance and control programs. The objective of the study was to genetically characterize SRLV strains isolated from intensive dairy sheep farms in Greece and evaluate the variability of the immunodominant regions of the capsid protein. For this reason, a total of 12 SRLV-infected animals from four intensive dairy sheep farms with purebred Chios and Lacaune ewes were used for the amplification and sequencing of an 800 bp gag-pol fragment. The phylogenetic analyses revealed a breed-related circulation of strains; Chios ewes were infected with strains belonging exclusively to a separate group of genotype A, whereas strains belonging to subtype B2 were isolated from Lacaune ewes. Immunodominant epitopes of capsid protein were quite conserved among the strains of the same genotype, except for the Major Homology Region which showed some unique mutations with potential effects on viral evolution. The present study contributes to the extension of the current knowledge regarding the genetic diversity of SRLV strains circulating in sheep in Greece. However, broader genetic characterization studies are warranted for the exploration of possible recombinant events and the more comprehensive classification of the circulating strains.

A Longitudinal Cohort Study of Risk Factors Associated with Small Ruminant Lentivirus Seropositivity in Intensively Reared Dairy Ewes in Greece.

A two-year longitudinal cohort study was conducted on a total of 407 purebred Chios and Lacaune ewes from four intensive dairy sheep farms to assess potential risk factors for small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) seropositivity. Ewes were serologically tested semiannually at pre-mating and pre-lambing, and their age, breed, and body condition score (BCS) were recorded. Εwes were categorized as constantly seronegative, constantly seropositive, seroconverted, seroreverted, or animals with an intermittent presence of antibodies. Mixed binary logistic regression models were used to estimate the adjusted relative risks of the studied risk factors for (i) the individual ewes' seropositivity, (ii) the manifestation of specific serological patterns, and (iii) the occurrence of seroconversion and seroreversion incidents. Increased age was associated with seropositivity and constantly seropositive status (p < 0.001 in both cases). On the other hand, age was negatively associated with constantly seronegative pattern, seroconversion incident, and the intermittent presence of antibodies (p < 0.05 in all cases). Moreover, breed was recognized as a risk factor: Lacaune ewes demonstrated increased seropositivity, whereas Chios ewes were more likely to demonstrate an intermittent presence of antibodies (p < 0.01 in both cases). Seropositive status (p < 0.001), seropositivity in animals with an intermittent presence of antibodies (p = 0.001), and seroconversion incidents (p < 0.001) were significantly increased at pre-lambing compared to pre-mating. The risk factors recognized in our study contribute to a better understanding of SRLVs epidemiology and the evidence-based designation of SRLVs' control programs in intensive dairy sheep farms in Greece.

Seroepidemiology of Maedi-Visna in Intensively Reared Dairy Sheep: A Two-Year Prospective Study.

The objective of this study is to prospectively evaluate the seroepidemiology of maedi-visna (MV) infections in intensively reared dairy sheep. A total of 407 purebred Chios and Lacaune ewes from four farms were surveyed for two consecutive years and were serologically tested semiannually with an indirect ELISA at pre-mating and pre-lambing. The farms' structure and management practices were similar and animal traits (age, breed, and production stage) were recorded. Based on the serological status, morbidity frequency measures were estimated, and ewes were categorized as constantly seronegative, constantly seropositive, seroconverted, seroreverted, or as animals with an intermittent presence of antibodies. During the study, period seroprevalence, incidence rate, and cumulative incidence were 84.8%, 33.6 new cases per 100 sheep-semesters, and 64.2%. Point-seroprevalence ranged from 48.5% to 96.0% among the studied farms and sampling occasions, and they increased by age. Increased morbidity frequency measures indicate the significance of horizontal transmission in intensive dairy sheep farms. A remarkable percentage of infected animals seroreverted (8.1%) or presented an intermittent presence of antibodies (10.3%) during the study, confirming the risk of misdiagnosis in cross-sectional studies and in the currently implemented testing and elimination programs. The serological patterns observed in our study need to be considered when studying MV epidemiology and for the designing of efficient MV elimination programs.

The Effects of Replacing Soybean Meal with Rapeseed Meal, Cottonseed Cake, and Fava Beans on the Milk Yield and Quality Traits in Milking Ewes.

The replacement of soybean meal (SBM) from intensively reared dairy sheep diets has emerged as a significant challenge for sustainable production. However, the effects of this replacement on milk production have not been sufficiently elucidated. The objective of this study was to prospectively assess the effects of replacing SBM with a mixture of alternative protein sources on the milk yield (MY) and the milk quality traits (MQT) in intensively reared dairy sheep. A total of 112 multiparous, purebred milking ewes of the Chios and Frizarta breeds, from two intensive dairy sheep farms, were involved in the study, postweaning, and were assigned to either the control (CR) or the experimental ration (ER) group. In the ER, 3/4 of the SBM was replaced by a mixture of rapeseed meal, cottonseed cake, and fava beans, producing a ration of a similar nutritional value. MY, MQT, and body condition scores were recorded for each individual ewe monthly for a period of 4 months during lactation. The experimental ration was associated with beneficial effects on daily and 100-day fat yields and on the electrical conductivity of milk as an improved udder health status indicator, with no adverse effects on any of the rest of the studied milk production traits.

Evaluation of Infrared Thermography for the Detection of Footrot and White Line Disease Lesions in Dairy Sheep.

The objectives of this study were to investigate temperature distribution at the sheep hoof and evaluate the reliability and diagnostic performance of infrared thermography (IRT) for the detection of footrot and white line disease (WLD) lesions in intensively reared dairy sheep. Hoof lesions were clinically assessed, and IRT was used to measure temperature distribution on hoof superficial tissue in 600 multiparous ewes. Binary regression models were developed and validated, and receiver operating characteristic curves were estimated to assess the predictive value and diagnostic performance of IRT for the detection of hoof lesions. The most sensitive prediction model for the detection of IFR was based on the difference between ambient and hoof heel temperature (sensitivity: 83.3%, specificity: 47.8%, and threshold value: 6.5 °C), whereas the most specific prediction model was based on the difference between ambient and coronary band temperature (sensitivity: 51.9%, specificity: 79.7%, and threshold value: 11.3 °C). In the case of WLD, the diagnostic performance of IRT had limited predictive value. IRT could be a useful tool for hoof health screening in dairy sheep. However, it must be cautiously adapted in cases where environmental, operating, and operator variables are not effectively controlled.

Serological, Molecular and Culture-Based Diagnosis of Lentiviral Infections in Small Ruminants.

Small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) infections lead to chronic diseases and remarkable economic losses undermining health and welfare of animals and the sustainability of farms. Early and definite diagnosis of SRLVs infections is the cornerstone for any control and eradication efforts; however, a "gold standard" test and/or diagnostic protocols with extensive applicability have yet to be developed. The main challenges preventing the development of a universally accepted diagnostic tool with sufficient sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy to be integrated in SRLVs control programs are the genetic variability of SRLVs associated with mutations, recombination, and cross-species transmission and the peculiarities of small ruminants' humoral immune response regarding late seroconversion, as well as intermittent and epitope-specific antibody production. The objectives of this review paper were to summarize the available serological and molecular assays for the diagnosis of SRLVs, to highlight their diagnostic performance emphasizing on advantages and drawbacks of their application, and to discuss current and future perspectives, challenges, limitations and impacts regarding the development of reliable and efficient tools for the diagnosis of SRLVs infections.

A Cross-Sectional Epizootiological Study and Risk Assessment of Foot-Related Lesions and Lameness in Intensive Dairy Sheep Farms.

Foot-related lameness, foot-diseases and lesions are emerging issues in dairy sheep; however, relevant epizootiological studies are scarce, and risk factors have not been elucidated. The objectives of this cross-sectional study were (i) to address this dearth of knowledge by investigating the epizootiology of lameness-related foot-lesions and diseases, and (ii) to assess the impact of potential risk factors on foot health, in intensive dairy sheep farms. Thirty farms were assigned in two representative clusters using a multivariate statistical analysis. Three farms per cluster and 100 multiparous milking ewes per farm (total n = 600) were selected and enrolled in the study. Foot-related lameness, ovine interdigital dermatitis (OID), infectious footrot (IFR), white line disease, hoof wall cracks, as well as health and welfare traits were recorded. Overall prevalence of foot-related lameness was 9.0% and was primarily associated with IFR; however, additional infectious and non-infectious foot diseases and lesions also contributed. Among infectious foot diseases, OID was the most prevalent (21.3%) followed by IFR (8.0%); WLD and hoof wall cracks were the most prevalent non-infectious foot-lesions (37.7% and 15.3%, respectively). IFR and OID prevalence increased with age (p < 0.05) and BCS (p < 0.01), respectively, suggesting that host-related factors and husbandry practices are important determinants of its occurrence.

Plant-Derived Natural Antioxidants in Meat and Meat Products.

The global meat industry is constantly evolving due to changes in consumer preferences, concerns and lifestyles, as well as monetary, geographical, political, cultural and religious factors. Part of this evolution is the introduction of synthetic antioxidants to increase meat and meat products' shelf-life, and reduce meat spoilage due to lipid and protein oxidation. The public perception that natural compounds are safer and healthier per se has motivated the meat industry to replace synthetic antioxidants with plant-derived ones in meat systems. Despite several promising results from in vitro and in situ studies, the effectiveness of plant-derived antioxidants against lipid and protein oxidation has not been fully documented. Moreover, the utility, usability, marketability and potential health benefits of natural antioxidants are not yet fully proven. The present review aims to (i) describe the major chemical groups of plant-derived antioxidants and their courses of action; (ii) present the application of spices, herbs and fruits as antioxidants in meat systems; and (iii) discuss the legislative framework, future trends, challenges and limitations that are expected to shape their acceptance and mass exploitation by the meat industry.

Natural Phenolic Compounds for the Control of Oxidation, Bacterial Spoilage, and Foodborne Pathogens in Meat.

Alternative technologies for long-term preservation, quality assurance, and safety of meat are continuously pursued by the food industry to satisfy the demands of modern consumers for nutritious and healthy meat-based products. Naturally occurring phenolic compounds are considered promising substances by the meat industry for their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, while consumers seem to embrace them for their claimed health benefits. Despite the numerous in vitro and in situ studies demonstrating their beneficial effects against meat oxidation, spoilage, and foodborne pathogens, wide application and commercialization has not been yet achieved. Major obstacles are still the scarcity of legislative framework, the large variety of meat-based products and targeted pathogens, the limited number of case-specific application protocols and the questionable universal efficiency of the applied ones. The objectives of the present review are i) to summarize the current knowledge about the applications of naturally occurring phenols in meat and meat-based products, emphasizing the mechanisms, determinants, and spectrum of their antioxidant and antimicrobial activity; ii) to present state-of-the-art technologies utilized for the application of phenolic compounds in meat systems; and iii) to discuss relevant regulation, limitations, perspectives, and future challenges for their mass industrial use.

Etiology, Epizootiology and Control of Maedi-Visna in Dairy Sheep: A Review.

Maedi-visna (MV) in sheep is caused by maedi-visna virus (MVV), a small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV) that causes chronic infection and inflammatory lesions in infected animals. Pneumonia and mastitis are its predominant clinical manifestations, and the tissues infected by MVV are mainly the lungs, the mammary gland, the nervous system and the joints. MV has a worldwide distribution with distinct MVV transmission patterns depending on circulating strains and regionally applied control/eradication schemes. Nevertheless, the prevalence rate of MV universally increases. Currently, gaps in understanding the epizootiology of MV, the continuous mutation of existing and the emergence of new small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) strains, lack of an effective detection protocol and the inefficiency of currently applied preventive measures render elimination of MV an unrealistic target. Therefore, modifications on the existing MV surveillance and control schemes on an evidentiary basis are necessary. Updated control schemes require the development of diagnostic protocols for the early and definitive diagnosis of MVV infections. The objectives of this review are to summarize the current knowledge in the epizootiology and control of MV in dairy sheep, to describe the research framework and to cover existing gaps in understanding future challenges regarding MV.

Aetiology, Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Control of Foot-Related Lameness in Dairy Sheep.

During the last twenty years, considerable research efforts have recognized the consequences of foot-related lameness primarily in cattle, and meat and wool sheep. Despite the lack of extensive epidemiological studies, field observations and isolated research reports in dairy sheep have suggested that the problem might be more severe in semi-intensive and intensive farming systems. Footrot, contagious ovine digital dermatitis, ovine interdigital dermatitis, white line disease, and pedal joint abscess are the most common causes of foot-related lameness. Dichelobacter nodosus, Fusobacterium necrophorum, Treponema spp., and Actinomyces pyogenes are the most significant foot-related lameness-associated pathogens. Despite a documented hereditary predisposition, environmental factors are the most important in determining the occurrence of foot-related lameness. Moist and warm environment, increased parity and milk yield, inappropriate housing conditions and infrastructures, inadequate hygiene status, imbalanced nutrition, and insufficient foot care are the most critical risk factors. Furthermore, a foot-lameness control plan should include targeted implementation of claw trimming and footbathing, evidence-based planning of hygiene measures in preventive veterinary practices (i.e., antibiotic administration, vaccinations against footrot), selective breeding to footrot resistance, and, most importantly, the continuous training of farming personnel. Controlling foot-lameness in dairy sheep is critical in determining the well-being of animals, and strongly affects the farm's profitability and sustainability.