The exercise intensity-music-tempo preference relationship: A decennial revisit.

Tempo is a key determinant of the motivational effects of music during exercise and has been the focus of numerous empirical studies (e.g., Karageorghis & Jones, 2014). The present study sought to address the limitations of previous related work and revisit the relationship between exercise intensity and music-tempo preference using unfamiliar, non-lyrical music (to isolate the tempo manipulation). A within-within experimental design was employed to test hypotheses pertaining to the non-linear relationship and associated psychological outcomes (e.g., core affect and state attention). Twenty-four participants (Mage = 20.6 years, SD = 0.92 years) exercised at five intensities (10% of peak V̇O2 below ventilatory threshold [VT]; 5% of peak V̇O2 below VT, at VT, midway between VT and the respiratory compensation point [RCP], and at RCP) during which they were administered music tracks at four tempi (90 bpm, 110 bpm, 130 bpm and 150 bpm) and a no-music control. A music liking item, measures of core affect (valence and arousal), attentional focus and perceived exertion were recorded during the exercise bouts. Results indicated that unlike previous findings with familiar, lyrical music, there was no discernible relationship between exercise intensity and preference for music tempo. The most positive psychological outcomes were associated with fast-tempo music. In accord with previous findings, slow-tempo music attracted low liking scores and the least desirable psychological outcomes at every exercise intensity. The present findings have implications for the use of unfamiliar, non-lyrical music during exercise. Specifically, that such music should be ∼10 bpm faster than familiar, lyrical music.

Interactive effects of music tempi and intensities on grip strength and subjective affect.

Pretask music is widely used by athletes albeit there is scant empirical evidence to support its use. The present study extended a line of work into pretask music by examining the interactive effects of music tempo and intensity (volume) on the performance of a simple motor skill and subjective affect. A 2 × 2 within-subjects factorial design was employed with an additional no-music control, the scores from which were used as a covariate. A sample of 52 male athletes (Mage  = 26.1 ± 4.8 years) was exposed to five conditions: fast/loud (126 bpm/80 dBA), fast/quiet (126 bpm/70 dBA), slow/loud (87 bpm/80 dBA), slow/quiet (87 bpm/70 dBA) music, and a no-music control. Dependent variables were grip strength, measured with a handgrip dynamometer, and subjective affect, assessed by use of the Affect Grid. The tempo and intensity components of music had interactive effects for grip strength but only main effects for subjective affect. Fast-tempo music played at a high intensity yielded the highest grip strength, while fast-tempo music played at a low-intensity resulted in much lower grip strength (Mdiff.  = -1.11 Force kg). For affective valence, there were main effects of tempo and intensity, with fast and loud music yielding the highest scores. For affective arousal, there was no difference between tempi although there was between intensities, with the high-intensity condition yielding higher scores. The present findings indicate the utility of fast/loud pretask music in enhancing affective valence and arousal in preparation for a simple or gross motor task.

The influence of motivation and attentional style on affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes of an exercise class.

Exercise classes are a popular form of physical activity. A greater understanding of the individual difference factors that might influence the outcomes of such classes could help to minimize the high dropout rates associated with exercise. The study explored the effects of dominant attentional style and degree of self-determination on affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes following structured exercise classes. Data from 417 female participants revealed that those with a dominant attentional style for association (Associators) reported significantly (P < 0.05) more positive affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes than did Dissociators, and were more self-determined. Highly self-determined individuals reported the most positive outcomes. Almost 29% of the variance in participants' affective valence could be explained by Dissociators' behavioral regulations. Results lend support to the notion that attentional style is associated with motivation. The combination of attentional style and degree of self-determination appear to be noteworthy individual difference factors that influence responses to exercise classes and could thus have a bearing on long-term exercise adherence.

Effects of psychological priming, video, and music on anaerobic exercise performance.

Peak performance videos accompanied by music can help athletes to optimize their pre-competition mindset and are often used. Priming techniques can be incorporated into such videos to influence athletes' motivational state. There has been limited empirical work investigating the combined effects of such stimuli on anaerobic performance. The present study examined the psychological and psychophysiological effects of video, music, and priming when used as a pre-performance intervention for an anaerobic endurance task. Psychological measures included the main axes of the circumplex model of affect and liking scores taken pre-task, and the Exercise-induced Feeling Inventory, which was administered post-task. Physiological measures comprised heart rate variability and heart rate recorded pre-task. Fifteen males (age = 26.3 ± 2.8 years) were exposed to four conditions prior to performing the Wingate Anaerobic Test: music-only, video and music, video with music and motivational primes, and a no-video/no-music control. Results indicate that the combined video, music, and primes condition was the most effective in terms of influencing participants' pre-task affect and subsequent anaerobic performance; this was followed by the music-only condition. The findings indicate the utility of such stimuli as a pre-performance technique to enhance athletes' or exercisers' psychological states.

Effect of music-movement synchrony on exercise oxygen consumption.

AIM: Past research indicates that endurance is improved when exercise movements are synchronised with a musical beat, however it is unclear whether such benefits are associated with reduced metabolic cost. We compared oxygen consumption (.VO2) and related physiological effects of exercise conducted synchronously and asynchronously with music. METHODS: Three music tracks, each recorded at three different tempi (123, 130, and 137 beats.min-1), accompanied cycle ergometry at 65 pedal revolutions.min-1. Thus three randomly-assigned experimental conditions were administered: slow tempo asynchronous, synchronous, and fast tempo asynchronous. Exercise response of .VO2, HR, and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), to each condition was monitored in 10 untrained male participants aged 21.7±0.8 years (mean±SD) who cycled for 12 min at 70% maximal heart rate (HR). RESULTS: Mean .VO2 differed among conditions (P=0.008), being lower in the synchronous (1.80±0.22 L.min-1) compared to the slow tempo asynchronous condition (1.94±0.21 L.min-1; P<0.05). There was no difference in HR or RPE among conditions, although HR showed a similar trend to .VO2. CONCLUSION: The present results indicate that exercise is more efficient when performed synchronously with music than when musical tempo is slightly slower than the rate of cyclical movement.

Effects of differentiated music on cycling time trial.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of music introduced and removed during a 10-km cycling time trial with reference to Rejeski's parallel processing theory and Karageorghis, Terry and Lane's conceptual framework for the prediction of responses to asynchronous music during sub-maximal exercise. A range of performance variables, ratings of perceived exertion, positive affect, negative affect, and blood lactate were assessed. Eleven males (mean age=24.9, s=6.1 years) completed a 10-km time trial under three conditions; no music, music played initially then removed between 5-10 km, and music played between 5-10 km only. Variables of time, power, cadence, speed, RPE, blood lactate, positive and negative affect were analysed using a ConditionxDistance ANOVA. There was no significant main effect for music conditions for the performance variables, perceived exertion, blood lactate, and affect (p>0.05). Nevertheless, a significant interaction effect for ConditionxDistance was found for cycling speed, with participants cycling 1-1.25 km/h faster at the start of the music introduced time trial than in both the music removed and no music time trials (p<0.05). The results indicate that performance and affect during a 10 km time trial are influenced by the introduction and/or removal of music during exercise and this finding can be used to extend current theory as it does not specifically address the periodic use music. The fact that participants exercised harder when they expected music to be introduced at a later stage illustrates the behavioural influences that music can engender during self-paced exercise.

Development and initial validation of the Brunel lifestyle physical activity questionnaire.

OBJECTIVES: To develop a valid and reliable internet based lifestyle physical activity questionnaire suitable for use among the United Kingdom population. METHODS: After a detailed content analysis and item generation using a panel of experts, an internet based measure of lifestyle physical activity behaviour was developed. Data were collected from 1369 subjects in total. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the two subscales of the Brunel lifestyle physical activity questionnaire among independent samples and by use of multisample analyses. RESULTS: The confirmatory factor analysis showed the psychometric integrity of two subscales: planned physical activity and unplanned physical activity. CONCLUSION: The questionnaire is a valid and reliable instrument designed to provide an online behavioural assessment to be used in conjunction with a 12 week personalised fitness programme delivered through the internet.

The characteristics and effects of motivational music in exercise settings: the possible influence of gender, age, frequency of attendance, and time of attendance.

AIM: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the characteristics and effects of motivational music in British gymnasia. The secondary purpose was to determine whether the characteristics and effects of motivational music were invariant in relation to gender, age, frequency of gymnasium attendance, and the time of day at which exercise participants attended gymnasia. METHODS: Participants (n=532) from 29 David Lloyd Leisure exercise facilities across Britain responded to a questionnaire that was designed to assess music preferences during exercise via 2 open-ended questions and 1 scaled-response item. RESULTS: A content analysis of the questionnaire data yielded 45 analytic properties that were grouped into the following categories: specific music factors, general music factors, music programme factors, delivery factors, televisual factors, personal factors, contextual factors, and psychophysical response factors. The relative incidence of these analytic properties across gender groups (male/female), age groups (16-26 y, 27-34 y, 35-45 y, 46+ y), frequency of attendance groups (low, medium, high), and time of attendance groups (morning, afternoon, evening) was tested by use of chi(2) analyses. Of the personal variables tested, age exerted the greatest influence on musical preference during exercise; older participants expressed a preference for quieter, slower, and generally less overtly stimulative music. CONCLUSION: Music programmes that are prescribed to accompany exercise should be varied in terms of musical idiom and date of release. Such programmes will account for the preferences of different groups of exercise participants that attend gymnasia at different times of the day. Further, the music chosen should be characterised by a strong rhythmical component.

Motives for exercise participation as predictors of exercise dependence among endurance athletes.

BACKGROUND: To investigate whether motives for exercise participation predicted exercise dependence (ED) among endurance athletes. The rationale for the study centred upon a test of the affect regulation model utilising constructs that form part of the Self-Determination Theory as predictors of ED. It was hypothesised that non self-determined motivation, specifically external regulation, would be predictive of ED. DESIGN: correlational design, with a time gap between predictor and dependent variables. SETTINGS: competitive sports environment. PARTICIPANTS: 188 competitive endurance athletes were recruited from amateur sports clubs. INTERVENTIONS: none. MEASURES: the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire was administered before a training session to measure the predictor variables (motives for exercise participation), and the Running Addiction Scale was administered before a similar training session, one week later, to measure the dependent variable (ED). RESULTS: Multiple regression analysis revealed that the strongest predictor variable of ED was introjected regulation (beta=0.29, p<0.001), followed by identified regulation (beta=0.19, p<0.05). External regulation and intrinsic motivation were weak and non-significant predictors. The total variance in ED explained by the exercise participation motives was 15% (R(2)= 0.15). CONCLUSIONS: ED was predicted by motives that did not support the tenets of the affect regulation model. Results are discussed in light of the potential influence of exercise participation motives on ED and their implications for intervention strategies and diagnosis of the ED syndrome.

Motivation profiles in sport: a self-determination theory perspective.

The present study examined the link between motivation profiles among adult sports participants and the consequences of enjoyment, effort, positive and negative affect, attitude toward sport participation, intention to continue sport participation, satisfaction, and frequency of attendance in sport. Two samples of participants (n = 590 and n = 555) completed the Sport Motivation Scale and a range of self-report measures to assess the outcome variables. Exploratory cluster analyses applied to Sample 1 and confirmatory cluster analysis applied to Sample 2 identified two clusters of sport participants. The first comprised participants with high scores on both nonself-determined and self-determined motives. The second comprised participants with high scores on self-determined motives but low scores on nonself-determined motives. Participants in the first cluster scored higher on all outcome variables. The results are discussed with reference to a more in-depth understanding of the motivation dynamics of sport participation based on Self-Determination Theory.

Hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis of the Flow State Scale in exercise.

In this study, we examined the factor structure and internal consistency of the Flow State Scale using responses of exercise participants. This self-report questionnaire consists of nine subscales designed to assess flow in sport and physical activity. It was administered to 1231 aerobic dance exercise participants. Confirmatory factor analyses were used to test three competing measurement models of the flow construct: a single-factor model, a nine-factor model and a hierarchical model positing a higher-order flow factor to explain the intercorrelations between the nine first-order factors. The single-factor model showed a poor fit to the data. The nine-factor model and the hierarchical model did not show an adequate fit to the data. All subscales of the Flow State Scale displayed acceptable internal consistency (alpha > 0.70), with the exception of transformation of time (alpha = 0.65). Collectively, the present results do not provide support for the tenability of the single-factor, nine-factor or hierarchical measurement models in an exercise setting.

Development and initial validation of an instrument to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport: the Brunel Music Rating Inventory.

Equivocal results of the psychophysical effects of music have been explained in part by the insensitivity of researchers to important personal and situational variables when selecting music. The aim of the present study was to operationalize a conceptual framework for the prediction of psychophysical responses to music into a music rating inventory to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport environments. An initial item pool was developed and administered to 334 aerobics instructors. Exploratory factor analysis produced a 13-item, four-factor structure (association, musicality, cultural impact and rhythm response), which accounted for 59.2% of the variance. This model demonstrated acceptable fit indices when tested using confirmatory factor analysis on 314 exercise-to-music participants, and was better than an alternative two-factor model. When cross-validated using multisample confirmatory factor analysis, the model also showed an acceptable fit overall, although some invariance in the rhythm response factor was evident that can be attributed to the exclusive use of synchronous music by aerobics instructors. The Brunel Music Rating Inventory appears to be a valid and reliable tool for both researchers and practitioners to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise and sport environments.

Goal confidence and difficulty as predictors of goal attainment in junior high school cross-country runners.

This study examined the influence of confidence in a goal and difficulty of the goal on the attainment of self-set goals regarding time and position. 63 junior high school cross-country runners (M age = 13.5 yr., SD = .5 yr.) completed a 6-item Race Goals Questionnaire approximately 24 hr. prior to a 2-km race. Attainability of a goal was assessed by categorizing runners into either a Performed to Expectation (Time, Position) or an Underperformed group (Time, Position). A 2 x 2 multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant differences between the two groups on Time for Confidence in goals and on Difficulty of Goals. There were no differences between the two groups on Position. Discriminant function analyses to predict time goal performance indicated that 47 (74.6%) participants could be correctly classified into the groups by Time on the basis of Confidence in Goals, and Difficulty of Goals. Discriminant function analyses to predict performance in terms of Position indicated 38 participants (60.3%) could be correctly classified on the basis of Confidence in Goals, and Difficulty of Goals. The results concur with previous proposals that goals regarding time and position have a differential influence on performance.

Antecedents of state anxiety in rugby.

The purpose of this study was to extend research investigating the antecedents of multidimensional state anxiety into the sport of rugby. Participants (N = 86; age: M = 23.7 yr., SD = 4.8 yr.) completed a 10-item Prematch Questionnaire developed to assess the antecedents of anxiety and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 1 hr. prior to competition. Factor analysis of intercorrelations of scores on the Prematch Questionnaire indicated that three factors accounted for 63.3% of the variance. These were labelled Perceived Readiness, Match Conditions, and Coach Influence. Stepwise multiple regression indicated that Perceived Readiness predicted rated Self-confidence and Somatic Anxiety. Game conditions also predicted Self-confidence. Collectively, these factors accounted for 30% of Self-confidence and 11% of Somatic Anxiety. No factor predicted Cognitive Anxiety. Findings support the notion that each sport has unique stressors and that researchers should seek sport-specific measures of the antecedents of anxiety.

Effects of pretest stimulative and sedative music on grip strength.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of stimulative (energizing) and sedative (relaxing) music on grip strength. A 2 x 3 (gender x condition) repeated-measures analysis of variance and post hoc tests showed that participants (N = 50) evidenced higher grip strength after listening to stimulative music (M = 43.94 kg.force) than after sedative music or a white noise control condition. Sedative music yielded lower scores than white noise. Men evidenced higher grip strength than women, but there was no interaction between gender and music condition. It was concluded that a simple motoric task such as grip strength provides a sensitive measure of psychophysical responses to music.

Measures of anxiety among tennis players in singles and doubles matches.

Male and female tennis players (N = 100) completed the Competitive State Anxiety. Inventory-2 about 1 hr. before playing singles and doubles matches. Multivariate analysis of variance of anxiety and self-confidence responses by match result indicated that winners of singles matches had significantly lower scores on Cognitive Anxiety and higher ones on Self-confidence scores than losers. Winners of doubles matches had significantly higher Self-confidence scores than losers. Discriminant function analysis indicated that 72% of results for singles matches and 70% of results for doubles matches could be correctly classified from responses to the precompetition measures. A comparison of anxiety responses by playing condition indicated that, irrespective of the match outcome, scores on Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety were higher and scores on Self-confidence were lower before playing singles than before playing doubles. The findings suggest that precompetition scores on measures of anxiety provide significant indicators of performance in tennis but that responses vary for singles and doubles play.

Path analysis examining relationships among antecedents of anxiety, multidimensional state anxiety, and triathlon performance.

The study explored predictive paths for antecedents of anxiety, state anxiety responses, and performance. Male triathletes (N = 175) completed a modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 which included the original intensity scale and a direction scale of Jones and Swain. They also completed a 23-item Prerace Questionnaire which measured antecedents of anxiety among triathletes. Factor analysis of intercorrelations for the Prerace Questionnaire identified six factors similar to those found in 1995 by the present authors. Path analysis to predict state anxiety from antecedents of anxiety indicated that rated intensity of anxiety was predicted by the perceived difficulty of race goals and by perceived readiness. Direction of anxiety was predicted by coach's influence, recent form, and perceived readiness. Path analysis to predict performance from state-anxiety scores and antecedents of anxiety indicated that recent form predicted performance directly without mediation of anxiety responses. Anxiety scores did not predict performance. The findings support the notion that intensity and direction of anxiety responses have different antecedents.