What Determines the Competitive Success of Young Croatian Wrestlers: Anthropometric Indices, Generic or Specific Fitness Performance?

Identifying factors influencing wrestling performance is important for determining which capacities should be developed the most. This research aimed to investigate whether anthropometric indices, generic fitness, and specific fitness performance determine the competitive success of young wrestlers. This research included 49 Croatian Greco-Roman male wrestlers aged 17.75 ± 1.51 years. Variables included training and competing experience, anthropometric indices, generic fitness (countermovement jump and handgrip strength), and specific wrestling fitness test (SWFT). Wrestlers were separated into medallists and non-medallists (i.e., wrestlers who won a medal at the previous National Championship and wrestlers who did not win a medal, respectively). The t-test for independent samples was used to determine the differences between the two categories in all variables. Moreover, discriminant analysis was performed to identify differences in a multivariate manner. Medallists and non-medallists did not differ in anthropometric indices and wrestling experience. Medallists had better results in the countermovement jump (t = 2.55, p < 0.01), handgrip strength (t = 2.77, p < 0.01), and SWFT performance (t = 2.29, p < 0.05) than non-medallists. The discriminant analysis confirmed that performance categories differed in generic and specific fitness tests (Wilks' Lambda = 0.73, p < 0.05). It could be suggested that coaches should develop both the generic and specific fitness of their wrestlers to become more successful at competitions.

Effects of Age and Popularity of Sport on Differences among Wrestlers' Parental Support: An Exploratory Study.

No research was previously performed on wrestling related to parental support. It is not known whether there are differences in support between younger and older children. The popularity of a sport can be reflected in parental support, and parents may be more inclined towards popular sports. The aim of this research was to examine differences in parental support among wrestlers of different age categories and between those coming from communities in which wrestling is a popular sport versus communities in which it is less popular. The sample of participants consisted of 172 wrestlers. The Parental Support Scale for Children in Sports was applied. Parental willingness to set an example was lower. As far as age is concerned, the period of entry into specialisation is sensitive. At this age, children perceive less parental support (p = 0.04) and lower parental belief in the benefits of sports (p = 0.01). The popularity of the sport is related to parental support. In environments in which wrestling is popular, parents know the sport better and can participate; therefore, children perceive more parental support. The findings of this study may help coaches to better understand athlete-parent relationships.

Motivation Profile of Youth Greco-Roman Wrestlers; Differences According to Performance Quality.

Athletes have to possess high motivation levels to perform each training session and competition at the highest level. Thus, the motivation of the wrestler is essential to reach the highest performance quality. The research included 47 Greco-Roman wrestlers aged 17.71 ± 1.62 years. Variables included anthropometric indices, sports motivation assessed by the revised Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-II), and competitive success (medal winners and non-winners at the National Championship). The Cronbach's alpha coefficients checked the internal consistency of the SMS-II. Differences between performance quality were determined by Cohen's d effect sizes, and MANOVA for motivation and anthropometric variables/body build variables. In the total sample, wrestlers had high levels of intrinsic motivation (5.97 ± 0.90), integrated (5.99 ± 0.83), and identified (6.08 ± 0.82) regulation, while they had low amotivation (2.53 ± 0.98) and external regulation (3.26 ± 1.24). Successful wrestlers had significantly higher intrinsic motivation than less successful wrestlers (Cohen's d = 0.76, moderate effect size). Results evidenced that wrestlers have high self-determined motivation, which is vital for maximal performance and persisting in sports. Future research should investigate wrestlers from other age groups to ultimately determine the sport motivation profile of wrestlers and enable their optimal sports development.

Different Training Methods Cause Similar Muscle Damage in Youth Judo Athletes.

It is well known that different factors can contribute to muscle damage in judo matches or training. Previous research analyzed only the effects of simulated judo combat or judo training on biochemical markers of muscle damage without determining its specific causes. Our objective was to identify possible differences in biochemical markers of muscular damage in response to different training methods in youth judo athletes. Twelve high-level male judo athletes were randomly assigned to a standing (SP, n = 6, age = 16.6 ± 1.1 years) or a groundwork (GP, n = 6, age = 17.8 ± 0.8 years) position combat practice group. Both groups had the same protocol of four 4-minute combat practice bouts separated by 1-minute rest intervals. Before and immediately after combat practice blood samples were taken to assess muscle damage markers: creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). There were significant increases in AST, LDH, and CK after the standing and groundwork training sessions compared with resting values in both groups. Additionally, no significant differences in the enzyme's activity between SP and GP groups were found. These results showed that standing and groundwork randori training (free sparring or free practice) causes similar muscle damage in adolescent judo athletes. Future research should assess the effects of the same damage mechanisms over a longer period of time.

The Relationship Between Handball Players and Alcohol and Smoking Habits.

Recent studies have revealed that sport activity is a protective factor regarding smoking, but a risk factor for alcohol abuse. Considering these findings, it is necessary to investigate the occurrence of substance misuse. Sports that are associated with a substantial amount of physical/mental stress are very interesting from the perspective of substance misuse (e.g., handball). This research was performed to more closely study the population engaged in handball regarding the risk for alcohol and/or tobacco consumption. The sample of respondents consisted of 150 senior handball players who were members of 9 first-league handball clubs from Croatia and abroad. The respondents were grouped into sub-samples according to sex, age, experience, the number of weekly training sessions and their social environment (clubs). Alcohol consumption data were obtained using the AUDIT questionnaire. The differences between groups were tested using the Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests. The study revealed that handball players engaged in alcohol misuse, and they were grouped in the harmful drinking category (AUDIT score, 16-19 for all groups). Regarding tobacco product consumption, the risk groups were women (who smoked significantly more than men, MWU test: Z = 3.30. p < 0.001), handball players with less experience (who smoked significantly more than experienced players, MWU test: Z = 3.68, p < 0.001). Borderline significance was observed for the impact made by social environments, and age was not a significant predictor of tobacco consumption. Regarding alcohol consumption, the highest hazard group were national handball players, who drank much more than foreign players did (MWU test: Z = 2.04, p = 0.04); however, sex, age, experience and training habits were not alcohol consumption predictors in handball. This study reveal that the typical behaviors regarding alcohol and tobacco consumption followed by the general population do not apply to handball players. Targeted prevention can be much more precisely established considering this research.

Urine specific gravity as an indicator of dehydration in Olympic combat sport athletes; considerations for research and practice.

Urine specific gravity (USG) is the most commonly reported biochemical marker used in research and applied settings to detect fluid deficits in athletes, including those participating in combat sports. Despite the popularity of its use, there has been a growing debate regarding the diagnostic accuracy and the applicability of USG in characterizing whole-body fluid status and fluctuations. Moreover, recent investigations report universally high prevalence of hypohydration (∼90%) via USG assessment in combat sport athletes, often in spite of stable body-mass. Given the widespread use in both research and practice, and its use in a regulatory sense as a 'hydration test' in combat sports as a means to detect dehydration at the time of weigh-in; understanding the limitations and applicability of USG assessment is of paramount importance. Inconsistencies in findings of USG readings, possibly as a consequence of diverse methodological research approaches and/or overlooked confounding factors, preclude a conclusive position stand within current combat sports research and practice. Thus the primary aim of this paper is to critically review the literature regarding USG assessment of hydration status in combat sports research and practice. When taken on balance, the existing literature suggests: the use of laboratory derived benchmarks in applied settings, inconsistent sampling methodologies, the incomplete picture of how various confounding factors affect end-point readings, and the still poorly understood potential of renal adaptation to dehydration in combat athletes; make the utility of hydration assessment via USG measurement quite problematic, particularly when diet and training is not controlled.

Rapid Weight Loss Is Not Associated With Competitive Success in Elite Youth Olympic-Style Boxers in Europe.

PURPOSE: To examine the influence of rapid weight loss (RWL) on competitive success in elite youth Olympic-style boxers. In addition, this study examined the practice and prevalence of weight reduction, weight-management protocols, and related symptoms in youth boxers from 12 European countries (N = 83, all males, mean [SD] age 17.1 [0.9] y). METHODS: The data were collected using an extensive questionnaire on weight cutting and its associated protocols and symptoms prior to highest-level continental championships. Competition results were obtained at follow-up using a dichotomous variable: medal winning vs nonwinning at the European Championships. RESULTS: Binary logistic regression analysis indicated that "boxing experience" was significantly related to the criterion competitive outcome (odds ratio = 1.33; 95% confidence interval, 1.06-1.66; Nagelkerke R2 = .11), with a higher likelihood of competitive success for more-experienced boxers. Of all the youth boxers, only 25% were included in the RWL group, irrespective of their weight-class stratification. More than 45% of all the youth boxers self-reported the simultaneous combination of different weight-cutting methods that are known to be serious health hazards. Finally, 33% of the boxers experienced muscle weakness as a consequence of RWL. CONCLUSIONS: Our study provided evidence of pathogenic weight-management protocols that are widely adopted by youth boxers, and yet the present outcomes showed that RWL did not translate into competitive success in these elite Olympic-style boxers in Europe. Therefore, the authors suggest a mandatory educational program that should simultaneously target all the mentioned issues including both health- and performance-threatening consequences.

Hydration status assessment among elite youth amateur boxers.

BACKGROUND: Weight cutting is a common practice in amateur boxing with the purpose of taking advantage of rivals competing in weight divisions below the athlete's normal weight. Dehydration is a common weight-manipulating technique in boxing, and is known as a serious health-threatening behavior. In this study, we investigated field hydration status differences between the weight class categories in elite junior boxers. METHODS: The sample of subjects included 21 male junior boxers from Croatia, Germany and Hungary (all national team members). The field assessment was conducted prior to competition. Subjects were divided into three weight class categories: Lightweight (Lw), Middleweight (Mw), and Heavyweight (Hw). The sample variables included urine specific gravity (USG) measured via a refractometer and total body fluid content (BFC) measured via Bioelectric Impedance Analysis (BIA). Data were collected on two occasions, i.e. at national team competitions that took place in preparation for the World Junior Championships. RESULTS: The results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between Lw 1.027±0.004 and Hw 1.019±0.005 (F=8.81, P<0.001) and Mw 1.028±0.003 and Hw (F=7.16, P<0.01) in USG. BIA findings showed conflicting results in relation to the USG findings. The results show a significant difference between Lw 67.84% BFC and Hw 65.14% BFC (P<0.01). These conflicting results, the lack of correlation between the two methods and the discrepancy in the Bland-Altman plot indicate that techniques for non-invasive field assessments of hydration have certain limitations. It seems that refractometry is more sensitive and accurate diagnostic tool to detect body fluid shifts then BIA when applied on athletes involved in chronical weight cycling protocols. CONCLUSIONS: Nevertheless, our data suggest that Lw and Mw class athletes seem to be more prone in reaching consequent dehydration state that literature frequently cites as hypohydration.

The influence of the wrestling skills on the performance of the center forward and the center defender in water polo.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine and to explain the impact of learning and improving some wrestling skills on the center defender and the center forward performance in the water polo game. METHODS: This study examined the performance of 28 young water polo players divided into experimental and control groups. For both groups the effectiveness of the performance of the water polo center forward and center defender was rated before and after the treatment. The sample of variables consisted of two integrated variables: duration and efficiency of the attack duel (DEAD) and for the second duration and efficiency of the defense duel (DEDD). RESULTS: In initial testing there were not significant differences between groups in any variables. There was a statistically significant difference between the initial and final measurements in the experimental group for variable DEAD and in the control group for variable DEDD. A statistically significant difference in the final measurements between groups was recorded for both variables. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study show that the application of learning the wrestling technique in young water polo players can significantly improve their performance. Progress in the performance in young water polo players is achieved due to the acquisition of new motor skills and the development of specific motor abilities such as specific power and strength.

Environmental Success Factors or the Justification for the Prohibition of High-Tech Swimsuits in Swimming.

The scope of the study was to elaborate and represent different aspects of high-tech suits which influence the swimming results and to justify the change of swimming rules in 2009. Impact of environmental factors on the result should not be greater than the athlete's impact. Impact of high-tech suits greatly contributes to the development of technology, new materials and modern design of sports equipment. The paper describes the genesis of the high-tech swimsuits and provides an analysis of causes and consequences of its prohibition. The arguments against the suits have an effect on prohibition of different sports requisites and equipment in all sports. This prohibition directly affects the modern swimmers who will have difficulties in breaking the world records swimming in high-tech suits.

The influence of body weight on chosen physiological parameters in wrestling.

In this study, the authors attempted to determine whether the dynamics of blood lactate and glucose in wrestling depend on the weight class. Blood lactate and glucose curves during and after a wrestling match were determined. We also explained the dynamics of blood lactate and glucose in the context of recent glucose and lactate metabolism research. A sample of 60 youth wrestlers (15-20 years) were divided into three weight groups. Each athlete participated in one wrestling match. During the fight, the athletes' heart rate, glucose, and blood lactate were measured. The differences in body mass between the athletes did not affect the dynamics of lactate and glucose in wrestling competition (Fisher LSD test). We established that lactate and glucose dynamics are the same for all weight groups (Fisher LSD-Lactate 1 < 2 < 3 = 4 > 5, Fisher LSD-Glucose 1 = 2 < 3 < 4 < 5). Understanding lactate and glucose metabolism in wrestling is important for wrestling coaches because they need to evaluate a wrestler's anaerobic energy status.

Glucose dynamics can evaluate state of anaerobic fitness in wrestling?!

The aim of this study was to describe and explain wrestling fight lactate and glucose curves and establish the differences between wrestlers of different quality level. The study was conducted on a sample 60 young wrestlers, cadets (N=30, aged 15.5+/-0.5) and juniors (N=30, aged 18.6+/-1.2). Every subsample was divided in two quality classes (higher quality n=15, lower quality N=15), according to the national championship ranking. Every subject wrestled one match (3x2 minutes). Heart rate was recorded and blood samples were taken before the match, after each round, and after 5 minutes of sedentary rest. Obtained results clearly suggest that there were no differences in measured physiological parameters between cadets and juniors. Statistically significant difference was determined between the higher and lower quality wrestlers after second and third round and after 5 minutes of sedentary rest in lactate level (p < 0.05), and after rest in glucose level (p < 0.001). This study confirmed the thesis suggesting that anaerobic diagnostics in wrestling through lactate measuring is possible. This study also revealed that anaerobic diagnostics in wrestling can be done even more precise through glucose measuring.

Lactate profile during greco-roman wrestling matchx.

The objective of this study was to determine and compare lactate profile of two groups of Greco-Roman wrestlers with different competences and training experience. Study was conducted on 10 wrestles that were members of Croatian national team and 10 wrestlers that were members of Wrestling club Split. Lactate samples were collected at four intervals during control fights that were held according to international wrestling rules of World wrestling federation FILA. Values of lactate increased as competition progressed, and they were highest at the end of the match for both groups of wrestlers. According to this study there were no significant differences in lactate between two groups at the end of the match, while significant differences were noted during the match. The information about lactate profile presented in this study can be used by coaches and wrestlers to develop condition programs. Key PointsThere were no significant differences in lactate concentrations at the end of the match between two proficiency levels of wrestlers.More proficient (elite) wrestlers raise lactates gradually through the wrestling match while less proficient (club) wrestlers raise it abruptly at the end of the first bout.Both groups of wrestlers are unable to sustain same level of activity through the match suggesting that they are utilizing too much energy from anaerobic glycolysis.