Influence of nanocrystal size on the in vivo absorption kinetics of caffeine after topical application.

The absorption of topically applied substances is challenging due to the effective skin barrier. Encapsulation of substances into nanoparticles was expected to be promising to increase the bioavailability of topically applied products. Since nanoparticles cannot traverse the intact skin barrier, but penetrate into the hair follicles, they could be used to deliver substances via hair follicles, where the active is released and can translocate independently transfollicularly into the viable epidermis. In the present in vivo study, this effect was investigated for caffeine. Caffeine nanocrystals of two sizes, 206 nm and 694 nm, with equal amounts of caffeine were used to study caffeine serum concentration kinetics after topical application on 5 human volunteers. The study demonstrated that at early time points, the smaller nanocrystals were more effective in increasing the bioavailability of caffeine, whereas after 20 min, the serum concentration of caffeine was higher when caffeine was applied by larger nanocrystals. Caffeine was still detectable after 5 days. The area under the curve could be increased by 82% when the 694 nm nanocrystals were applied. Especially larger sized nanocrystals seem to be a promising type of nanoparticulate preparation to increase the bioavailability of topically applied drugs via the transfollicular penetration pathway.

Azithromycin nanocrystals for dermal prevention of tick bite infections.

Azithromycin was optimized as nanocrystals with a drug content of 10.0 % (w/w) and a surfactant D-α -tocopheryl polyethylenglycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) content of 1.0 % (w/w) using bead milling for 10 min. The photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS) diameter of the bulk population was 189 nm, laser diffraction (LD) diameter 90 % was 370 nm. Spherical morphology of the optimal nanocrystals was observed by transmission electron microscope (TEM). They were stable over 1 year of storage at 4 °C with the particle size within the nanometer range which was confirmed by PCS, LD and light microscope. An acceptable physical stability of 2 years was also obtained when stored at 4 °C. No microbial attack to the nanocrystals was observed before 3 years storage at 4 °C. The saturation solubility of the nanocrystals was up to triple compared to the raw drug powder (RDP) in water. When incorporated into the gel base, highest penetration efficacy was achieved by the optimal nanocrystals compared to 1) the clinically effective ethanol-solution-gel, 2) the gel with propylene glycol and 3) the gel with RDP in the ex vivo porcine ear penetration study. Even though propylene glycol improved saturation solubility of nanocrystals, it could not bring benefit to nanocrystals in the penetration study. Based on these optimized azithromycin nanocrystals, topical administration for enhanced dermal bioavailability of azithromycin seems to be feasible.

Maximum Loaded Amorphous Azithromycin Produced Using the Wetness Impregnation Method with Fractional Steps for Dermal Prophylaxis Against Lyme Disease.

Azithromycin was loaded onto the µm-sized mesoporous silica Davisil® SP53D-11920 using the wetness impregnation method with fractional steps (WIFS) and further incorporated into a 5 % hydroxypropyl cellulose gel to prevent Lyme disease. Maximum loadings (32.0 % w/w and 33.2 % w/w) were produced by different concentrated loading solutions and determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD). A total of 24 months stability of the amorphous azithromycin state in the silica (33.2 % loading) and 18 months stability in the gel (33.2 % loading) at 4 °C were also confirmed by XRD. The higher kinetic solubility at 40 min (1,300 µg/mL versus 93 µg/mL) and higher porcine ear skin penetration compared to the raw drug powder indicated higher dermal bioavailability of the azithromycin-loaded silica (32.0 % loading), even when compared to the "gold standard" nanocrystals and another clinical effective azithromycin formulation with ethanol. In summary, maximum loaded silicas with azithromycin by WIFS is a promising dermal formulation for prophylaxis against Lyme disease.

Evaluation of a biosurfactant extract obtained from corn for dermal application.

At present, there is an increasing demand to improve the sustainability of surface-active compounds in dermal formulations. Biosurfactants, which are derived from living cells, are considered to be more environmentally friendly than synthetic surfactants. Thus, the use of biosurfactants is a promising strategy for the formulation of more environmentally friendly and sustainable dermal products. In this work, a biosurfactant extract (BS) obtained from corn wet-milling industry was studied for its potential use in dermal formulations. The corn derived BS possesses good surface-active properties and was found to be a suitable co-stabilizer for nanoemulsions and nanocrystals for dermal application. It also possesses antioxidative and skin protective properties and was also able to increase the dermal penetration efficacy for lipophilic actives. In dermal formulations the BS can therefore be used as co-stabilizer with antioxidative and penetration enhancing properties at the same time.

Mucoadhesive dexamethasone acetate-polymyxin B sulfate cationic ocular nanoemulsion--novel combinatorial formulation concept.

Dexamethasone acetate (DEX) and polymyxin B sulfate (polymyxin B) were formulated as a cationic nanoemulsion for the treatment of ophthalmic infections. As novel concept, the positive charge to achieve mucoadhesion was not generated by toxicologically and regulatorily problematic cationic lipids or polymers, but by using a positively charged drug in combination with positively charged preservatives. The preservative also acts as co-surfactant to stabilize the emulsion. Nanoemulsions with the lipid phase Eutanol G-Lipoid S 100 (70%:30%) containing 0.05% (w/w) DEX were produced by high pressure homogenization, followed by dissolving the hydrophilic molecules in the water phase, e.g. polymyxin B (0.1%, w/w), cetylpyridinium chloride (0.01%, w/w) and glycerol (2.6%, w/w) to yield a combination product. The particles were below 200 nm with narrow size distribution. The osmolality (374 mOsm/kg), pH (5.31) and viscosity (2.45 mPa s at 37 degrees C) were compatible to the ocular administration. The zeta potential of the optimized formulation was shifted from approx. +9 mV to -11 mV after mucin incubation. The in vitro test revealed no potential cytotoxicity. The final products were stable after 180 days of storage at 4 degrees C and room temperature. The developed product is a viable alternative to the commercial ophthalmic suspensions. Moreover, this concept of generating the positive charge by cationic drug and/or preservative addition can be transferred to other ophthalmic products.

Nanosuspensions of hesperetin: preparation and characterization.

Nanosuspensions are a smart formulation principle for dermal applications, as they increase the penetration of poorly soluble substances into the skin. Because microbial stability is a pre-requisite for dermal formulations, water containing formulations need to be preserved. Preservatives are known to possibly impair the physical stability of disperse systems, i.e. by causing agglomeration. These aggregation phenomena might occur during storage of the final product, but can already occur during the production process itself. Therefore, in this study the influence of six different preservatives on the diminution efficiency during the production of hesperetin nanocrystals was investigated. Particles with and without the addition of preservatives were produced by high pressure homogenization (HPH) and the final particle size was analysed and compared to the non-preserved suspension. All preservatives influenced the diminution progress during production and the final particle sizes obtained. The non-preserved suspension yielded a particle size of about 300 nm. Preservation with Hydrolite, Euxyl PE9010, Rokonsal and Phenonip led to sizes of about 400 nm. Preservation with Caprylyl glycol and MultiEx did not lead to nanoparticles (size > 1 microm) and caused a slight agglomeration of the nanosuspensions. Based on zeta potential measurements it was found that the impairment is related to the lipophilicity of the presverative, i.e. the lower the lipophilicity, the less is the impairment. In conclusion, preservatives impair the diminution efficacy during the production of nanosuspensions. Therefore, if possible, preservatives should be added to nanosuspensions after the production process. If preservatives are required during production, highly hydrophilic preservatives, e.g. Hydrolite E, should be used.

A new concept for the treatment of atopic dermatitis: silver-nanolipid complex (sNLC).

In the treatment of mild to medium severe atopic dermatitis a new formulation proved to be highly efficient. The formulation is based on a combination of microsilver and nanolipid carriers (NLC) incorporated into an o/w cream and a lotion. A theory of action was proposed, the formation of silver-NLC complex (sNLC). In this study this theory was proven, and based on this new mechanism two new approaches for dealing with AD are suggested to distinctly improve AD treatment, i.e. increasing efficiency, reducing drug exposure and reducing side effects. The antimicrobial silver ions adsorb onto the surface of the negatively charged NLC (=sNLC complex). The sNLC as nanoparticles are highly adhesive to skin and bacterial surfaces, leading to a locally high concentration of silver ions killing the bacteria, much more effective than silver alone. The NLC restore the distorted skin barrier. Based on this a new two-step approach is suggested: (1) "treatment-supportive consumer care" by restoring the normal skin condition (NLC for barrier restoration plus synergistic antibacterial silver-NLC complex) and (2) "drug-loaded consumer care AD formulations". i.e. incorporating drugs into the NLC of this consumer care formulation. NLC incorporation makes the drugs more effective (penetration enhancement) and simultaneously exploits the skin normalization ability of the skin care sNLC formulation, future drug candidates being prednicarbate and tacrolimus.

Development of lycopene-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers: effect of rice oil and cholesterol.

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) were developed using a skin-compatible surfactant and natural lipid materials (rice oil, cholesterol) to incorporate lycopene. Characteristics of the NLC were explored in comparison with nanoemulsions and solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLN). Photon correlation spectroscopy, laser diffractometry (LD) and differential scanning calorimetry were used to determine particle size and thermal stability. Particle size expressed as LD (0.99) was 405 nm for the SLN, 350 nm for the NLC without cholesterol and 287 nm for the NLC with cholesterol. Rice oil and cholesterol enabled the formation of smaller particles, but cholesterol also reduced drug stability in the NLC. To preserve chemical stability of lycopene in the NLC, cholesterol should be avoided and storage should be at 4 degrees C or at room temperature.

Development of industrially feasible concentrated 30% and 40% nanoemulsions for intravenous drug delivery.

Emulsions for parenteral nutrition loaded with drugs are used for optimized drug delivery, but in case of poorly oil soluble drugs, the injection volume can be too large when using commercial 10-20% oil emulsions. To reduce the injection volume, the feasibility of producing injectable, physically stable concentrated emulsions up to 40% oil content was investigated. Emulsions were made from fish oil, stabilized with egg lecithin, using high-pressure homogenization. Emulsions with oil contents of 10%-40% were investigated to assess basic correlations between increasing oil content, applied production pressures, homogenization cycles and resulting bulk droplet size, content of larger particles, zeta potential, viscosity and short-term stability. The observed correlations showed that in high-pressure homogenization, the contribution of the dispersive effect dominated the coalescence effect at low and Optimum production conditions for 30% and 40% nanoemulsions, i.e. 800 bar and 2 -3 homogenization cycles, were established on lab scale. These production conditions are industrially feasible. The obtained droplet sizes (about 200 nm) and the content of larger droplets were comparable to 10% commercial emulsions of parenteral nutrition, being important for in vivo tolerability and organ distribution. Despite the high oil concentration, the viscosity of the nanoemulsions was sufficiently low for injection. The short-term storage study showed physical stability for 1 month. A concentrated nanoemulsion base formulation from regulatory accepted excipients is now available, ready for loading with drugs.

Nanostructured lipid carriers as nitroxide depot system measured by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy.

Various nanometer scaled transport systems are used in pharmaceutics and cosmetics to increase penetration or storage of actives. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are efficient drug delivery systems for dermatological applications. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy was used for the determination of TEMPO (2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy) distribution within the carrier and to investigate the dynamics of skin penetration. Results of ex vivo penetration of porcine skin and in vivo data - forearm of human volunteers - are compared and discussed to previously obtained results with invasomes under comparable conditions. W-band measurements show 35% of TEMPO associated with the lipid compartments of the NLC. Application of TEMPO loaded NLC to skin ex vivo increases the observation time by 12min showing a stabilisation of the nitroxide radical. Moreover, stabilisation is also seen with data generated in vivo. Thus, same as invasomes NLCs are a suitable slow release depot system.

Skin photoprotection improvement: synergistic interaction between lipid nanoparticles and organic UV filters.

A photoprotective formulation was developed with an increased sunprotection factor (SPF), compared to a conventional nanoemulsion, but having the same concentration of three molecular sunscreens, namely ethylhexyl triazone, bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenyl triazine, and ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate. The sunscreen mixture was incorporated into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). The ability of nine different solid lipids to yield stable aqueous NLC suspensions was assessed. After the production by hot high pressure homogenization, the NLC were analyzed in terms of particle size, physical state, particle shape, ultraviolet absorbance and stability. The particle size for all NLC was around 200 nm after production. The NLC suspension with carnauba wax had superior UV absorbance, NLC from bees wax showed similar efficiency as the reference emulsion. The NLC formulations were incorporated into hydrogel formulations and the in vitro SPF was measured. This study demonstrated that approximately 45% higher SPF values could be obtained when the organic UV filters were incorporated into carnauba wax NLC, in comparison to the reference nanoemulsion and bees wax NLC. The data showed that the synergistic effect of NLC and incorporated sunscreens depends not only on the solid state of the lipid but also on its type.

Polyhydroxy surfactants for the formulation of lipid nanoparticles (SLN and NLC): effects on size, physical stability and particle matrix structure.

The two polyhydroxy surfactants polyglycerol 6-distearate (Plurol(®)Stearique WL1009 - (PS)) and caprylyl/capryl glucoside (Plantacare(®) 810 - (PL)) are a class of PEG-free stabilizers, made from renewable resources. They were investigated for stabilization of aqueous solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) dispersions. Production was performed by high pressure homogenization, analysis by photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS), laser diffraction (LD), zeta potential measurements and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Particles were made from Cutina CP as solid lipid only (SLN) and its blends with Miglyol 812 (NLC, the blends containing increasing amounts of oil from 20% to 60%). The obtained particle sizes were identical for both surfactants, about 200 nm with polydispersity indices below 0.20 (PCS), and unimodal size distribution (LD). All dispersions with both surfactants were physically stable for 3 months at room temperature, but Plantacare (PL) showing a superior stability. The melting behaviour and crystallinity of bulk lipids/lipid blends were compared to the nanoparticles. Both were lower for the nanoparticles. The crystallinity of dispersions stabilized with PS was higher, the zeta potential decreased with storage time associated with this higher crystallinity, and leading to a few, but negligible larger particles. The lower crystallinity particles stabilized with PL remained unchanged in zeta potential (about -50 mV) and in size. These data show that surfactants have a distinct influence on the particle matrix structure (and related stability and drug loading), to which too little attention was given by now. Despite being from the same surfactant class, the differences on the structure are pronounced. They are attributed to the hydrophobic-lipophilic tail structure with one-point anchoring in the interface (PL), and the loop conformation of PS with two hydrophobic anchor points, i.e. their molecular structure and its interaction with the matrix surface and matrix bulk. Analysis of the effects of the surfactants on the particle matrix structure could potentially be used to further optimization of stability, drug loading and may be drug release.

Production and characterization of testosterone undecanoate-loaded NLC for oral bioavailability enhancement.

PURPOSE: Nanostructured lipid carriers were loaded with testosterone undecanoate (TU), which has a low oral bioavailability. METHODS: Different NLC dispersions were produced using the hot high pressure homogenization method. Particles were characterized using dynamic and static light scattering techniques, differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction. And the bioavailability was compared to a marketed product. RESULTS: Nanostructured lipid carriers with up to 30% TU load and sizes of about 600 and 200 nm could be achieved, allowing a direct comparison of the size effect in in vivo bioavailability studies. The zeta potentials varied between - 20 and - 40 mV. The bioavailability of Andriol Testocaps® in the fed state was matched. CONCLUSIONS: This opens the perspective of administering a single dose of dose of TU in one oral dosage unit and simultaneously having a bioavailability less dependent on the fed state.

Resveratrol nanosuspensions: interaction of preservatives with nanocrystal production.

The effect of six different preservatives on the production process and stability of resveratrol nanosuspensions was investigated. Nanosuspensions of the anti-oxidant resveratrol were prepared by high pressure homogenization (1,500 bar, 20 homogenization cycles). The preservatives used were: caprylyl glycol (0.75%), Euxyl PE 9010 (1.0%), Hydrolite-5 (2.0), Phenonip (0.75%), Rokonsal PB-5 (0.5%) and MultiEx Naturotics (2.0%). Preservation is essential for oral and dermal nanosuspensions, but can impair the stability. The effect of the preservatives on stability as a function of cycle numbers was determined by size measurements (photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS), laser diffraction (LD) and light microscopy). Zeta potential measurements were performed for determination of the Stern potential (measurements in water) and as stability criterion (measurements in original dispersion medium), to elucidate the mechanism of destabilization. The preservatives could be placed into three groups. Hydrolite-5 did not affect the production process and the short term stability, sizes were practically identical to the preservative-free nanosuspension (e.g. PCS diameters 196 nm and 184 nm, respectively). All other preservatives impaired the stability medium to pronounced, being most pronounced for MultiEx Naturotics. Hydrolite-5 is recommended as preservative of choice. A mechanistic model was developed to explain the absence and the different degrees of destabilization. In general, when screening for suitable preservatives, suspensions are produced, different preservatives added and the size changes are monitored over long-term. The destabilizing effect of the preservatives on nanosuspensions became evident when added in the production process immediately, thus this can be used as a screening tool for optimal, non-destabilizing preservatives, replacing or minimizing time-consuming long-term stability studies.

Preserving hesperetin nanosuspensions for dermal application.

Nanosuspensions as aqueous formulations need to be preserved. However, preservatives could vitiate the physical stability of suspensions and to a greater extent nanosuspensions. The impact of six varied preservatives on the physical stability of previously prepared nanosuspensions was studied. The hesperetin nanosuspensions were stabilized using plantacare 2000.30 cycles of high pressure homogenization (HPH) led to a mean photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS) diameter of 335 nm. The preservatives were, caprylyl glycol, Euxyl PE9010, Hydrolite-5, MultiEx naturotics, Phenonip and Rokonsal PB5. On one hand, aggregations were noticed after adding caprylyl glycol, MultiEx naturotics and Phenonip reaching PCS mean diameters of about 500, 1070, 800 nm, respectively. While on the other hand Euxyl PE9010, Hydrolite-5 and Rokonsal PB5 have not significantly affected the physical stability of the nanosuspensions with mean PCS diameters of about 365, 332, 350 nm, respectively. The obtained nanosuspensions were further characterized by measuring zeta potential. From the obtained data it was found that the lipophilicity of the used preservatives demonstrates major influence on the stability of the nanosuspensions, i.e. the higher lipophilicity of the preservative, the stronger the destabilizing effect. Briefly, highly hydrophilic preservatives are recommended to preserve hesperetin nanosuspensions in order to maintain their physical stability during storage.

Resveratrol nanosuspensions for dermal application--production, characterization, and physical stability.

Nanosuspensions of the anti-oxidant resveratrol (5%) were produced for dermal application. Production was performed by high pressure homogenization, applying 1.500 bar up to 30 cycles. Four nanosuspensions were investigated using the stabilizers Tween 80, Poloxamer 188, Plantacare 2000 and Inutec SP1, 1% and 2% respectively. The nanosuspensions were characterized regarding size (photon correlation spectroscopy, laser diffraction), zeta potential and crystallinity. Nanocrystal sizes were about 150 nm (Poloxamer, Plantacare) and about 200 nm (Tween, Inutec); no amorphous fraction could be detected in the nanocrystals. In a short-term stability study (30 days, room temperature), the nanosuspensions with 2% stabilizer proved to be either less stable or at least had no stability advantage over the 1% formulations. All formulations with 1% stabilizer were stable in the short-term study, Plantacare and Inutec showing best stabilization. The stabilization is attributed solely or mainly to steric stabilization, because the measured zeta potentials in the original dispersion media were close to zero (-1 to -5 mV, Tween, Poloxamer, Plantacare) or around -20 mV (Inutec).