Are autistic traits associated with a social-emotional memory bias?

Autistic traits are associated with differential processing of emotional and social cues. By contrast little is known about the relationship of autistic traits to socio-emotional memory, though research suggests an integral relationship between episodic memory processes and psychosocial well-being. Using an experimental paradigm, we tested if autistic traits moderate the effects of negative emotion and social cues on episodic memory (i.e. memory for past events). Young adults (N = 706) with varied levels of self-reported autistic traits (24% in clinical range) encoded images stratified by emotion (negative, neutral) and social cues (social, non-social) alongside a neutral object. After 24 h, item memory for images and associative memory for objects was tested. For item memory, after controlling for anxiety, a small effect emerged whereby a memory-enhancing effect of social cues was reduced as autistic traits increased. For associative memory, memory for pairings between neutral, but not negative, images reduced as autistic traits increased. Results suggest autistic traits are associated with reduced ability to bind neutral items together in memory, potentially impeding nuanced appraisals of past experience. This bias toward more negative, less nuanced memories of past experience may represent a cognitive vulnerability to social and mental health challenges commonly associated with autistic traits and a potential intervention target.

Utility of a virtual small group cognitive behaviour program for autistic children during the pandemic: evidence from a community-based implementation study.

BACKGROUND: Autistic children often experience socioemotional difficulties relating to emotion regulation and mental health problems. Supports for autistic children involve the use of adapted interventions that target emotion regulation and social skills, alongside mental health symptoms. The Secret Agent Society Small Group (SAS: SG), an adapted cognitive behavioural program, has demonstrated efficacy through lab-delivered randomized control trials. However, research is still needed on its effectiveness when delivered by publicly funded, community-based autism providers under real-world ecologically valid conditions, especially within the context of a pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted access to community-based supports and services for autistic children, and programs have adapted their services to online platforms. However, questions remain about the feasibility and clinical utility of evidence-based interventions and services delivered virtually in community-based settings. METHODS: The 9-week SAS: SG program was delivered virtually by seven community-based autism service providers during 2020-2021. The program included the use of computer-based games, role-playing tasks, and home missions. Caregivers completed surveys at three timepoints: pre-, post-intervention, and after a 3-month follow-up session. Surveys assessed caregivers' perception of the program's acceptability and level of satisfaction, as well as their child's social and emotional regulation skills and related mental health challenges. RESULTS: A total of 77 caregivers (94% gender identity females; Mean = 42.1 years, SD = 6.5 years) and their children (79% gender identity males; Mean = 9.9 years, SD = 1.3 years) completed the SAS: SG program. Caregivers agreed that the program was acceptable (95%) and were highly satisfied (90%). Caregivers reported significant reduction in their child's emotion reactivity from pre- to post-intervention (-1.78 (95% CI, -3.20 to -0.29), p = 0.01, d = 0.36), that continued to decrease after the 3-month booster session (-1.75 (95% CI, -3.34 to -0.16), p = 0.02, d = 0.33). Similarly, improvements in anxiety symptoms were observed (3.05 (95% CI, 0.72 to 5.36), p = 0.006, d = 0.39). CONCLUSIONS: As online delivery of interventions for autistic children remains popular past the pandemic, our findings shed light on future considerations for community-based services, including therapists and agency leaders, on how best to tailor and optimally deliver virtually based programming. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This study has been registered with ISRCTN Registry (ISRCTN98068608) on 15/09/2023. The study was retroactively registered.

Research methods at the intersection of gender diversity and autism: A scoping review.

LAY ABSTRACT: Research has increasingly focused on the intersection between gender diversity and autism. To better understand this literature, this scoping review systematically searched five databases for peer-reviewed literature on gender diversity and autism published between 2018 and 2023. Included studies (N = 84) were of English language, featured original qualitative or quantitative findings, and examined a psychosocial connection between autism and gender spectra variables. Most studies focused on measuring prevalence of autism among gender-diverse individuals. While the overall study rigor was acceptable, weaknesses in measurement, sample selection, and definition of key terms were noted. Promisingly, studies in this area appear to be shifting away from a pathologizing lens and towards research methods that engage in meaningful collaboration with the autistic, gender-diverse community to investigate how to best enhance the quality of life and wellbeing of this population.

Trajectory research in children with an autism diagnosis: A scoping review.

LAY ABSTRACT: The types of outcomes studied in children on the autism spectrum include clinical characteristics, such as social functioning, communication, language, or autism symptoms. Research that measures these outcomes at multiple timepoints is useful to improve our understanding of what to expect as children develop. In trajectory studies, researchers assess outcomes at three or more timepoints. This method has advantages over two-timepoint studies because it allows researchers to describe changes in the speed of development, such as accelerations, plateaus, or slowdowns. We identified and reviewed 103 published trajectory studies in children (to age 18 years) with an autism diagnosis. Importantly, we did not include studies of treatments or their effects, nor did we summarize the results of studies. Instead, this review summarizes the characteristics of the available published research, including the methods used, the many different outcomes that have been studied over time and the ages over which they have been studied. This summary may be of interest to autistic people and caregivers (parents) who want to know about the existence of research that provides answers about what to expect during an autistic child's development. We have recommended that future trajectory research efforts try to make up for the lack of studies from low- and middle-income countries; that more attention is given to the following outcomes that are meaningful to caregivers and autistic people; and to try to fill in the age gaps where more outcome-specific data are needed.

Psychotropic Medication Use in Children and Youth with Autism Enrolled in Medicaid.

Children with autism frequently present with complex mental health diagnoses and psychotropic medications are often a component of comprehensive biopsychosocial treatment plans for these conditions. The purpose of this study is to provide rates and patterns of psychotropic medication use, and predictors thereof, in children and youth with autism enrolled in Medicaid across the US. This study examined national Medicaid claims from 2008 to 2016 of all children and youth with autism ages 0-21 years enrolled in Medicaid. Psychotropic medication use was examined across several child and youth characteristics, including age, co-occurring mental health conditions, sex, and race and ethnicity. About half of children and youth with autism enrolled in Medicaid had at least one psychotropic prescription in a year, a number that decreased slightly across the study period due to decreases in the prescription of antipsychotics. As new medications for autism or co-occurring conditions are developed and deployed, and as the understanding of the characteristics of the population of children with autism evolves, studying rates of medication usage helps to understand utilization patterns and differences in access to quality care.

Community-based care for autistic youth: community providers' reported use of treatment practices in the United States.

Introduction: To illustrate the landscape of community-based care for autistic youth in the United States, we identified transdisciplinary psychosocial intervention practice sets that community providers report utilizing to care for this population, and examined characteristics associated with provider-reported utilization. Methods: The Usual Care for Autism Study (UCAS) Survey assessed provider demographics and provider-reported use of transdisciplinary practices for common ASD co-occurring problems: social difficulties, externalizing behaviors, and anxiety. Community practitioners (N = 701) from allied health, behavioral, education, medical, mental health and other disciplines who treat or work with autistic youth (7-22 years) participated. Results: Exploratory factor analysis yielded four factors: Consequence-Based Strategies (CBS), Cognitive-Behavioral and Therapy Strategies (CBTS), Antecedent-Based Strategies (ABS), and Teaching Strategies (TS). Providers across disciplines reported utilizing ABS more often than other sets. Providers from behavioral disciplines, with less than 4-year or Master degrees, or with more experience reported the most use of ABS, CBS and CBTS. Medical and behavioral providers reported the most use of TS. Setting and child characteristics were associated with practice set use, indicating variability by disability and client socioeconomic status. Discussion: Findings reflect the complexity and inconsistency of the service landscape for autistic youth across the U.S. Only by understanding the service landscape and predictors of practice utilization, can researchers, policymakers, provider groups, and the autistic community facilitate effective implementation strategy development and use to ultimately improve community-based care.

Changes in the severity of autism symptom domains are related to mental health challenges during middle childhood.

LAY ABSTRACT: For many autistic children, the severity of their autism symptoms changes during middle childhood. We studied whether these changes are associated with the emergence of other mental health challenges such as anxiety and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Children who had increased social-communication challenges had more anxiety and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms and disruptive behavior problems than other children. Children who decreased their restricted and repetitive behaviors, on the contrary, had more anxiety. We discuss why these changes in autism symptoms may lead to increases in other mental health concerns.

Anxiety in autistic preschool children: Phenomenology and a network analysis of correlates.

Anxiety disorders in autistic children are associated with significant functional impairment. Few studies have examined impairing anxiety presentations in autistic preschool children (i.e., 3-5 years old). This cross-sectional study examined the phenomenology of impairing anxiety and the strongest correlates of anxiety in 75 autistic preschool children. Parents completed a diagnostic interview that assesses two anxiety types, DSM-5 anxiety disorders and impairing distinct anxiety presentations, and measures of anxiety correlates. An exploratory network analysis examined connections between anxiety and its correlates. Forty percent of children had impairing anxiety. Specific phobia followed by 'other social fear,' a type of distinct anxiety, were the most common anxiety types. Child intolerance of uncertainty (IU) was the only correlate that was associated with anxiety in a network analysis framework. Child IU linked anxiety to two other correlates, sensory over-responsivity and somatic symptoms. Findings emphasize the need for early intervention for anxiety and further research on its correlates.

Autistic characteristics and mental health symptoms in autistic youth during the first COVID-19 wave in Canada.

Autistic youth are at heightened risk for mental health issues, and pandemic-related stressors may exacerbate this risk. This study (1) described caregiver-reported youth mental health prior to and during the pandemic; and (2) explored individual, caregiver, and environmental factors associated with changes in autistic characteristics, social-emotional symptoms, and overall mental health. 582 caregivers of autistic children (2-18 years old) completed an online survey between June and July 2020 in which they provided demographic information, their child's pre-COVID and current mental health, autistic characteristics, and social-emotional symptoms. Caregivers also rated their own perceived stress, and COVID-related household and service disruption. According to caregivers, youth experienced more autistic characteristics and social-emotional concerns during the pandemic. Autistic youth were also reported to experience poorer overall mental health during the pandemic than before the pandemic. Older youth whose caregiver's indicated higher perceived stress and greater household disruption were reported to experience more autistic traits during pandemic. Caregiver-reported increases in youth social-emotional symptoms (i.e., behavior problems, anxiety, and low mood) was associated with being older, the presence of a pre-existing mental health condition, higher caregiver stress, and greater household and service disruption. Finally, experiencing less household financial hardship prior to COVID-19, absence of a pre-existing psychiatric condition, less caregiver stress, and less service disruption were associated with better youth pandemic mental health. Strategies to support the autistic community during and following the pandemic need to be developed. The developmental-ecological factors identified in this study could help target support strategies to those autistic youth who are most vulnerable to mental health problems.

Examining the Relationship Between Anxiety Severity and Autism-Related Challenges During Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Children with Autism.

PURPOSE: Using data from a randomized clinical trial evaluating cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for children with autism and co-occurring anxiety, this study examined the relationship between autism features and anxiety symptoms throughout CBT. METHODS: Two multilevel mediation analyses were run which examined the mediating role of changes in anxiety for changes in two core features of autism, (a) repetitive and restrictive behaviors (RRBs) and (b) social communication/interaction impairments, between pre- and post-treatment. RESULTS: Indirect effects between time and autism characteristics were significant for both models, indicating that as anxiety changes, so do RRBs and social communication/interaction as the outcomes respectively. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest a bidirectional relationship between anxiety and autism features. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Examining clinical characteristics of autism and links with parent perceptions of sibling relationship quality.

LAY ABSTRACT: Sibling relationship quality is important for the well-being of children on the autism spectrum and their siblings. Little is known, however, about how varied behavior and abilities of children on the autism spectrum may be associated with parent perceptions of domains of sibling relationship quality. We drew data from a subsample of 119 children on the autism spectrum (ages 10-11 years), participating in an ongoing longitudinal study. We looked at how three clinical characteristics (autism symptoms, behavioral difficulties, and communication ability) related to four areas of parent-reported sibling relationship quality (warmth/closeness, conflict, relative status/power, and rivalry). We also examined whether the strength of the association between behavioral difficulties and parent-reported sibling relationship quality was influenced by communication ability. We found that more severe autism symptoms were associated with less conflict and rivalry, and higher communication ability was associated with more relative status/power. We also found that children on the autism spectrum with more behavioral difficulties and weaker communication ability had less warmth/closeness in their sibling relationships. Our findings highlight that it is important to consider autism symptoms, behavioral difficulties, and communication ability, as well as multiple domains of relationship quality, to better understand how parents view the relationships between autistic children and their siblings. Clinically, methods for improving sibling relationships may include teaching conflict resolution strategies to children on the autism spectrum with stronger communication abilities and their siblings, and fostering sibling connection for those with lower communication abilities.

Expert consensus regarding indicators of a traumatic reaction in autistic youth: a Delphi survey.

OBJECTIVE: It has been suggested that the sequelae of trauma are under-recognized in youth on the autism spectrum. We aimed to generate expert consensus regarding important trauma indicators, including but not limited to traumatic stress symptoms, in autistic youth. METHODS: We recruited 72 experts in autism and/or childhood trauma. Via a 2-round Delphi survey, experts commented on and rated the importance of 48 potential indicators, drawn from PTSD criteria and a broader literature on traumatic sequelae in autism. A revised list of 51 indicators, 18 clinical guidelines developed from expert comments, and summaries of expert qualifications and ratings from Round 1 were submitted to a second round (n = 66; 92% retention) of expert review and rating. RESULTS: Twenty-two indicators reached consensus (>75% round 2 endorsement). Many, but not all, reflected PTSD criteria, including intrusions (e.g., trauma re-enactments in perseverative play/speech), avoidance of trauma-reminders, and negative alterations in mood/cognition (e.g., diminished interest in activities) and in arousal/reactivity (e.g., exaggerated startle). Experts also identified increased reliance on others, adaptive and language regressions, self-injurious behavior, and non-suicidal self-injury as important indicators. Consensus guidelines emphasized the need for tailored measures, developmentally informed criteria, and multiple informants to increase diagnostic accuracy. CONCLUSIONS: Expert consensus emphasizes and informs a need for tailored diagnostic guidelines and measures to more sensitively assess traumatic reactions in autistic youth.

Predictors of expert providers' familiarity with intervention practices for school- and transition-age youth with autism spectrum disorder.

LAY ABSTRACT: School-age children, adolescents, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder encounter many different types of providers in their pursuit of treatment for anxiety, behavior problems, and social difficulties. These providers may all be familiar with different types of intervention practices. However, research has not yet investigated patterns in expert providers' familiarity with different practices nor how these patterns are related to the characteristics of providers (years in practice, academic discipline, setting) and the youth (age and intellectual disability) they typically support. A panel of 53 expert transdisciplinary providers rated their familiarity with 55 intervention practices (derived from research and expert nominations) via an online Delphi poll. Advanced statistical methods were used to identify types of intervention practices with which providers were familiar, which included two approaches (cognitive and behavioral) and two strategies (engagement and accessibility). Providers who practiced outside a school setting or treated clients without intellectual disability were more familiar with cognitive approaches. Clinical psychologists, behavior analysts, and school-based providers were more familiar with behavioral approaches. Providers practicing outside school settings were also more familiar with engagement strategies, and providers with more years in practice were more familiar with accessibility strategies. These results may help families and researchers to better anticipate how services may vary depending on the types of autism spectrum disorder providers seen and work to reduce disparities in care that may result.

Reward Sensitivity Predicts the Response to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Children with Autism and Anxiety.

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is an effective treatment for anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, research has yet to examine what cognitive characteristics may influence treatment response. The current study investigated decision-making ability and social cognition as potential (a) predictors of differential treatment response to two versions of CBT and (b) moderators of the effect of treatment condition. METHOD: The study included 148 children (mean age = 9.8 years) with interfering anxiety and a diagnosis of ASD who were enrolled in a randomized clinical trial comparing two versions of CBT for anxiety (standard and adapted for ASD). Participants completed pretreatment measures of decision-making ability (adapted Iowa Gambling Task) and social cognition (Strange Stories) and analyses tested whether task performance predicted treatment response across and between (moderation) treatment conditions. RESULTS: Our findings indicate that decision-making ability moderated treatment outcomes in youth with ASD and anxiety, with a better decision-making performance being associated with higher post-treatment anxiety scores for those who received standard, not adapted, CBT. CONCLUSIONS: Children with ASD and anxiety who are more sensitive to reward contingencies and reinforcement may benefit more from adapted CBT approaches that work more explicitly with reward.

Disentangling global and domain-level adaptive behavior trajectories among children with autism spectrum disorder.

BACKGROUND: Heterogeneity in adaptive behavior abilities among people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is expressed not only as uneven levels of impairment across domains, but also in the developmental trajectories of adaptive skills. We studied the question of whether, after accounting for global adaptive behavior development, we find evidence of heterogeneity in the trajectories of specific domains of adaptive behavior. METHODS: A sample of 504 children with ASD was obtained by combining data from two independent natural history studies conducted in North America. We used a factor of curves model to explain growth between 36 and 138 months in Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (VABS) age equivalents as a function of domain-specific and global growth processes. RESULTS: The domain-specific trajectories in all three domains (Communication, Daily Living Skills, and Socialization) reflected impairment relative to age expectations as well as slower-than-expected growth with age, and the parameters of these trajectories were moderately-to-strongly correlated across domains. The global adaptive behavior trajectory had an initial (36-41 months of age) developmental level of about 22 age-equivalent months, and eventually slowed after initially increasing by about 6 months each year. The global trajectory accounted for the majority of variance in the domain-level processes; however, additional variance remained (14%-38%) in the domain-level intercepts, slopes, and quadratic processes. CONCLUSIONS: These results extend existing theoretical and empirical support for the hierarchical structure of adaptive behavior to include its development over time in clinical samples of children with ASD. A latent global trajectory may be sufficient to describe the growth of adaptive behavior in children with ASD; however, the remaining domain-specific variability after accounting for global adaptive behavior development allows for the possibility that differential effects of intervention on specific domains may be possible and detectable.

Episodic memory through a social and emotional lens.

Negative emotion enhances item memory but may reduce associative memory. Social information may also enhance memory, yet how social and emotional cues combine to affect memory for focal and surrounding details is unknown. Gender differences may also exist, but whether women and men encode and remember negative and social information differently is unclear. This study examines how social information contributes to or interacts with emotion to influence item and associative memory, and whether gender plays a role in how social and/or emotional information is recognized. Discovery and replication samples (N = 706) were recruited. Stimuli included (1) images with varying social and emotional content categorized into four conditions: negative social, negative nonsocial, neutral social, neutral nonsocial and (2) neutral images of objects paired with target stimuli to assess associative memory. Participants viewed the image pairings (Encoding). Twenty-four hours later, item and associative recognition memory were tested. Item recognition memory was better for negative vs. neutral and social vs. nonsocial images. By contrast, associative recognition memory was worse for negative vs. neutral, but better for social vs. nonsocial images. Finally, women demonstrated similar item memory performance compared to men but better associative recognition memory performance overall compared to men. Emotional and social cues impart distinct effects on how we form holistic episodic memories, highlighting the importance of considering these critical factors when striving to understand how and what we remember. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Developmental cascades between insistence on sameness behaviour and anxiety symptoms in autism spectrum disorder.

Autistic children experience high rates of anxiety. Insistence on sameness behaviour (IS) is a core feature of autism that appears correlated with anxiety severity. The objective of this study was to examine the longitudinal relations between anxiety and IS in autistic children using a developmental cascade model. A longitudinal cohort of 421 autistic children was followed between 4 and 11 years of age. Anxiety was quantified using items from the Anxiety Problems subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist; sameness behaviours were measured using the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised, Ritualistic/sameness subscale (both parent-report measures). Structural equation modelling was used to examine the longitudinal and directional associations between anxiety and IS at four time-points, through cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) with and without a random-intercepts component (RI-CLPM). Both the CLPM and the RI-CLPM had good fit. Significant directional associations were detected whereby elevated or increasing IS preceded elevated or increasing anxiety symptoms 1-2 years later, respectively. Stable baseline tendencies towards anxiety and IS as between-person traits (intercepts) were strongly associated (standardized estimate = 0.69, p < 0.001). The magnitude of the cross-sectional associations between anxiety and IS appeared to lessen with age. IS and anxiety symptoms in autism are closely related. They appear to be shared traits that mirror each other particularly in younger children. Increasing IS may be a sign of emerging future anxiety. Interventions that target IS to reduce or prevent anxiety amongst school-aged autistic children merit further study.

Anger Outbursts in Youth with ASD and Anxiety: Phenomenology and Relationship with Family Accommodation.

Anger outbursts (AO) are associated with severe symptoms, impairment and poorer treatment outcomes for anxious children, though limited research has examined AO in youth with co-occurring autism and anxiety disorders. This study examined AO in children with autism and anxiety by evaluating clinical characteristics, family accommodation, and changes in AO following anxiety-focused treatment. The sample comprised 167 youth with autism and anxiety enrolled in a multi-site randomized clinical trial comparing standard care CBT for anxiety, CBT adapted for youth with autism, and usual care. Most participants (60%) had AO, which contributed to impairment above and beyond anxiety and autism. AO impacted functional impairment indirectly through a pathway of parental accommodation. AO reduced with anxiety-focused treatment. Findings highlight that AO are common in this population and uniquely contribute to functional impairment, indicating a need for direct targeting in treatment.

Change during cognitive and exposure phases of cognitive-behavioral therapy for autistic youth with anxiety disorders.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate improvement during the (a) cognitive and (b) exposure therapy phases of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for autistic youth with anxiety disorders. METHOD: Participants were 148 autistic youth (aged 7-13; 77% male; 64% White) with clinically significant anxiety who were randomized to standard or adapted CBT. Clinician-rated anxiety severity was recorded at each appointment. Trajectories of change during (a) the cognitive phase and (b) the exposure phase of treatment were analyzed using piecewise multilevel modeling. RESULTS: Compared to the psychoeducation and cognitive therapy phases, the exposure phase corresponded with significantly more rapid symptom reduction, b = -.11, 95% CI [-.13, -.071]. This finding was true for standard CBT, which included nine sessions prior to exposure initiation (on average), as well as for CBT personalized for autistic youth, which introduced exposure following the fifth session (on average). In contrast, compared with improvements during initial psychoeducation sessions, the introduction of cognitive skills corresponded with significantly slower symptom reduction, b = .066, 95% CI [.020, .11]. This finding was also true for both adapted and standard CBT. CONCLUSIONS: Results underscore the central role of exposure in the treatment of anxiety among autistic youth and question the utility of cognitive strategies without subsequent practice of these skills during exposure. Assuming a working relationship, therapists should consider moving through the preexposure coping phase of CBT quickly. Future research should evaluate the extent to which exposure can maintain its potency while minimizing coping skill preparation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A Qualitative Study of Self and Caregiver Perspectives on How Autistic Individuals Cope With Trauma.

Background: Coping can moderate the relationship between trauma exposure and trauma symptoms. There are many conceptualisations of coping in the general population, but limited research has considered how autistic individuals cope, despite their above-average rates of traumatic exposure. Objectives: To describe the range of coping strategies autistic individuals use following traumatic events. Methods: Fourteen autistic adults and 15 caregivers of autistic individuals, recruited via stratified purposive sampling, completed semi-structured interviews. Participants were asked to describe how they/their child attempted to cope with events they perceived as traumatic. Using an existing theoretical framework and reflexive thematic analysis, coping strategies were identified, described, and organized into themes. Results: Coping strategies used by autistic individuals could be organized into 3 main themes: (1) Engaging with Trauma, (2) Disengaging from Trauma, and (3) Self-Regulatory Coping. After the three main themes were developed, a fourth integrative theme, Diagnostic Overshadowing, was created to capture participants' reports of the overlap or confusion between coping and autism-related behaviors. Conclusions: Autistic individuals use many strategies to cope with trauma, many of which are traditionally recognized as coping, but some of which may be less easily recognized given their overlap with autism-related behaviors. Findings highlight considerations for conceptualizing coping in autism, including factors influencing how individuals cope with trauma, and how aspects of autism may shape or overlap with coping behavior. Research building on these findings may inform a more nuanced understanding of how autistic people respond to adversity, and how to support coping strategies that promote recovery from trauma.