An investigation of laboratory-based positive and negative emotional suppression in relation to posttraumatic stress disorder symptom clusters.

BACKGROUND: Emotional suppression is a clinically significant aspect of emotion regulation with robust associations to psychopathology, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Despite the fast-growing body of literature highlighting the role of positive emotion regulation difficulties in the development and maintenance of PTSD, extant work on emotional suppression and PTSD has almost exclusively focused on the role of negative emotions. OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to advance this literature by examining the associations between PTSD symptom clusters and participants' use of state emotional suppression during a laboratory task designed to elicit negative or positive emotions. METHOD: Participants were 108 community women (Mage = 39.55; 33% Black/African American) currently experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) by a male partner and using substances. Participants were interviewed using a structured diagnostic assessment for PTSD and reported on state emotional intensity and emotional suppression following idiographic negative or positive emotion inductions. RESULTS: Results of the moderation analyses showed that, when controlling for state emotional intensity, women experiencing clinical levels of PTSD symptom Clusters B (intrusive recollections), D (negative alterations in cognitions and mood), and E (alterations in arousal and reactivity) were significantly more likely to utilize emotional suppression, but only in the context of positive-not negative-emotions. CONCLUSIONS: Findings provide evidence for a link between PTSD and positive emotional suppression among women currently experiencing IPV by a male partner and using substances, highlighting positive emotional suppression as a potential target in PTSD treatment for IPV populations with comorbid substance use concerns. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Concordance of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Assessed via Retrospective Report Versus Experience Sampling Methods in Community Women Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the most prominent negative health consequences that women experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) may develop. However, research on PTSD among women experiencing IPV has largely relied on retrospective reporting methods, which are vulnerable to bias and may consequently misrepresent PTSD symptoms. This study evaluated the concordance between PTSD symptoms assessed via retrospective self-report and experience sampling methods (ESM), which involve repeated within-day sampling of experiences in near real-time and in natural environments. Community women (N = 134) experiencing IPV (Mage = 40.7, 30.4% Black) responded to ESM surveys three times a day for 30 days and then completed a follow-up interview. Retrospective self-report of PTSD symptoms, which were assessed during the follow-up interview, were compared to ESM reports of PTSD symptoms. Retrospective reports of PTSD symptoms were significantly different from PTSD symptoms reported during the ESM period, but most closely resembled peak PTSD symptoms. Notably, retrospective reports of PTSD symptoms were significantly different, with a very large effect size, from average PTSD symptoms reported during the ESM period. Discordance scores were significantly negatively associated with the number of days on which any IPV occurred, suggesting that as the frequency of IPV experiences increased, differences between retrospective PTSD symptoms and each ESM symptom pattern decreased. This study provides an important contribution to the literature by highlighting meaningful differences in PTSD symptoms assessed via retrospective self-report versus ESM and the role of IPV context. Findings emphasize the importance of utilizing ESM in PTSD research with women experiencing IPV.

Role of Alexithymia in the Association Between Childhood Abuse and Risk Perception for Sexual Victimization in College Women.

Sexual victimization is prevalent among college women with a history of childhood abuse (CA), which some research suggests is linked to impaired risk perception for sexual victimization or difficulties identifying and responding to unwanted sexual advances. Alexithymia is one construct yet to be examined in the association between CA and risk perception for sexual victimization. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the associations between CA, alexithymia, and risk perception for sexual victimization in a sample of college women with a history of CA. Participants included 294 undergraduate women with a history of childhood emotional, physical, and/or sexual abuse (Mage = 20.6, 80.6% White). An a priori path analysis was conducted to examine whether alexithymia indirectly explains the association between CA and risk perception for sexual victimization (i.e., comprising two related constructs, including threat detection and behavioral response to threat). Supplementary analyses were conducted post hoc to examine potential differences across CA subtypes (emotional, physical, and sexual). Alexithymia indirectly explained the relationship between CA and threat detection, and behavioral response to threat. However, indirect effects were negative, suggesting that undergraduate women with more severe CA and alexithymia identify sexual assault threat cues and intentions to "leave" a hypothetical sexual assault scenario sooner rather than later. The same pattern of results was observed for emotional and physical (but not sexual) CA when examining their indirect effects on threat detection, and for emotional CA when examining behavioral response to threat. Findings contribute to the literature on sexual victimization by clarifying the role of alexithymia in risk perception for sexual victimization. Results also highlight the potential utility of increasing emotional literacy among college women with a history of CA (and especially emotional abuse) to facilitate adaptive responding to unwanted sexual advances.

Correlates of College Women's Sexual Assault Resistance Self-Efficacy.

Studies suggest that actively fighting back against an attacker is effective in decreasing the severity and completion of a sexual assault, yet little is known about the factors that contribute to women's confidence in fighting back. Accordingly, the present study examines correlates of college women's self-efficacy in resisting unwanted sexual advances (N = 650). Results suggest that fewer psychological barriers to resistance, greater sexual communication, increased use of dating self-protective behaviors, and greater sexual assertiveness were associated with increased sexual resistance self-efficacy. Findings underscore the importance of developing sexual assault prevention programs that increase women's confidence in fighting back.

Ground-up approach to understanding the impacts of historical trauma in one reserve-dwelling first nations community.

OBJECTIVE: First Nations peoples experience disproportionate health inequities compared to most non-Indigenous populations. Historical trauma is one factor that has received growing attention in relation to health inequities among First Nations populations. The goal of the present study was to improve understanding of the specific forms, impacts, and mechanisms of transmission of events that lead to historical trauma and the historical trauma response in First Nations peoples. METHOD: Five focus groups were conducted among adult members of one First Nations community in Canada (N = 34; 70.4% female). RESULTS: Conventional content analysis revealed the numerous forms that historical trauma take in this First Nations community; individual-, familial-, community-, and societal-level impacts of historical trauma; and ways in which historical trauma has been transmitted in this community. Loss of culture, alcohol use, and parenting were major themes identified across these domains. CONCLUSIONS: Findings provide important information on the experience of historical trauma in one First Nations community, highlighting the roles of loss of culture; alcohol use; and parenting in the forms, impacts, and transmission of historical trauma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Role of positive emotion regulation strategies in the association between childhood trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder among trauma-exposed individuals who use substances.

BACKGROUND: The co-occurrence of childhood trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is highly prevalent and clinically significant. Existing research emphasizes the role of emotion regulation in the relation between childhood trauma and PTSD. Yet, research in this area has almost exclusively examined the influence of strategies aimed at regulating negative emotions, such as anger and sadness. OBJECTIVE: To extend existing research, the current study examined underlying roles of strategies for regulating positive emotions (i.e., self- and emotion-focused positive rumination and positive dampening) in the association between childhood trauma severity and PTSD symptoms. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Participants were 320 trauma-exposed community individuals who reported past 30-day substance use (Mage = 35.78, 50.3% men, 81.6% white). METHOD: Analyses examined whether childhood trauma severity was indirectly related to PTSD symptoms through self-focused positive rumination, emotion-focused positive rumination, and positive dampening. RESULTS: Positive dampening, but not positive self- and emotion-focused positive rumination, indirectly explained associations between childhood trauma severity and PTSD symptoms (B = .17, SE = .03, 95% CI [.12, .24]). CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the potential utility of targeting positive dampening in the treatment of PTSD symptoms among individuals who use substances with a history of childhood trauma.

Posttraumatic stress symptoms and risky alcohol use: The roles of negative social reactions to sexual assault disclosure and trauma-related shame.

INTRODUCTION: Posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTS) and risky alcohol use (RAU) frequently co-occur among those with a history of sexual assault, and this co-occurrence has been linked to severe psychosocial and functional impairment. OBJECTIVE: The current study examined the roles of negative social reactions to sexual assault disclosure and trauma-related shame in the association between PTS severity and RAU. This was tested by examining the separate and sequential indirect effects of negative social reactions and trauma-related shame in the PTSD-RAU relation among individuals with a history of sexual assault. METHOD: Data were collected from 235 individuals who endorsed a history of sexual assault (Mage = 35.45, 70.5% women, 83.8% White). RESULTS: Negative social reactions (b = .03, SE = .01, p < .05, 95% CI [.005, .06]) and trauma-related shame (b = .03, SE = .01, p < .05, 95% CI [.003, .06]), separately, and sequentially (b = .01, SE = .004, p < .05, 95% CI [.001, .02]) explained the relation between PTS severity and RAU. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that it may be valuable to assess and neutralize negative social reactions to reduce trauma-related shame and subsequent RAU among individuals with a history of sexual assault who experience more severe PTS severity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Daily reciprocal relations between negative and positive emotion dysregulation and posttraumatic stress symptoms among individuals with a history of sexual assault.

Posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are a debilitating health concern that can develop following sexual assault. One factor central to PTSS is emotion dysregulation. However, little is known about how emotion dysregulation, particularly the dysregulation of positive (versus negative) emotions, relates to the maintenance of PTSS over time. This study aimed to address this gap in the literature by using a micro-longitudinal approach to examine daily reciprocal relations between negative and positive emotion dysregulation and PTSS. Participants were 121 individuals with a history of sexual assault (Mage = 35.27; 70.2% women; 81.0% white) recruited from the community. Participants self-reported on negative and positive emotion dysregulation as well as PTSS once daily for seven days. Findings provide support for the effects of both negative and positive emotion dysregulation on increases in next-day PTSS. Results carry important implications for PTSS assessment and intervention efforts among those with a history of sexual assault.

Emotion regulation and substance use: A meta-analysis.

There has been exponential growth in research on emotion regulation and substance use in the past decade. The current meta-analysis evaluated variability in the magnitude of the relation between aspects of emotion regulation and substance use. A search of PsycINFO, Embase, PubMed, CINAHL Plus, and PILOTS in December 2020 resulted in 6642 initial studies, of which 95 met inclusion criteria (association between emotion regulation and substance use was reported, participants were > 18 years old, article was in English). A total of 445 effects were obtained (N = 156,025 participants; weighted Mage = 29.31; 59.5% female; 66.1% White; 76.6% non-clinical). Emotion regulation and substance use were significantly related (r = 0.19; p < 0.001; 95%CI [0.17, 0.20]). Emotion regulation abilities were generally more strongly related to substance use than emotion regulation strategies; this pattern was stronger for behavioral vs. cognitive abilities and extended to both negative and positive emotions. Relations were stronger for older and clinical samples; mixed effects were found for sex and no conclusive effects were found for race. Despite limitations of the existing literature (e.g., cross-sectional, self-reports), results indicated that the magnitude of the relation between emotion regulation and substance use varied considerably as a function of emotion regulation and substance use constructs and sample characteristics.

Sexual victimization and disordered eating among community individuals: The influence of negative and positive emotion dysregulation.

OBJECTIVE: Individuals with a history of sexual victimization are at increased odds of developing an eating disorder in their lifetime. Emotion dysregulation has been identified as an outcome of sexual victimization and a vulnerability factor in the emergence and maintenance of disordered eating. However, research in this area has been limited by its narrow focus on dysregulation stemming from negative emotions. The aim of the current study was to explore the potential moderating roles of negative and positive emotion dysregulation in the relations between sexual victimization and disordered eating. METHOD: Study participants included 473 community individuals who endorsed a history of sexual assault (Mage = 34.66; 44.8% male; 78.4% White). Participants completed measures assessing sexual victimization, negative and positive emotion dysregulation, and disordered eating. Data was collected from January to April of 2020 via Amazon's Mechanical Turk. RESULTS: Results indicated significant positive relations among sexual victimization, negative and positive emotion dysregulation, and disordered eating. Sexual victimization was found to be more strongly associated with disordered eating at high (vs. low) levels of negative and positive emotion dysregulation. DISCUSSION: This study provides evidence for the strengthening roles of both high negative and positive emotion dysregulation in the relation between sexual victimization and disordered eating, suggesting the potential utility of targeting both negative and positive emotion dysregulation in disordered eating interventions among individuals with a history of sexual victimization.

Positive emotion dysregulation and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: Investigating the role of anxiety sensitivity.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms are prevalent and deleterious among individuals who have experienced a sexual assault. Although an emerging field of research has established a link between positive emotion dysregulation and PTSD symptoms, there is a limited understanding of mechanisms underlying this relation. Individuals who have experienced a sexual assault may begin to fear any arousal-related sensations via stimulus generalization, including that associated with positive emotions, which, in turn, may amplify PTSD symptoms. Thus, the current study examined the role of anxiety sensitivity in the association between positive emotion dysregulation and PTSD symptoms. METHODS: A sample of 500 community members reporting a history of sexual assault (Mage=34.54, 54.4% male, 79.0% white) completed measures of positive emotion dysregulation, anxiety sensitivity, and PTSD symptoms. RESULTS: Findings detected a significant indirect effect of anxiety sensitivity in the relation between positive emotion dysregulation and PTSD symptoms (ß = 0.28, SE=0.03, 95% CI [0.22, 0.34]). Supplementary analyses revealed that effects held for subscales of anxiety sensitivity (i.e., cognitive, physical, social concerns) and PTSD symptom clusters (i.e., intrusions, avoidance, negative alternations in cognitions and mood, alternations in arousal and reactivity). CONCLUSIONS: This study offers preliminary empirical support for the assertion that fear of arousal-related sensations associated with positive emotions may partially explain the link between positive emotion dysregulation and PTSD symptoms among those who have experienced a sexual assault. Information from this study could advance future research and treatment.

Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms moderate the relation between childhood sexual abuse and disordered eating in a community sample.

OBJECTIVE: Previous work has found clear associations between childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and disordered eating in adulthood. However, further research is needed to clarify factors that may influence this relationship. The current study advanced existing research by examining the moderating influence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity in the association between CSA and disordered eating. METHOD: Data were collected from 463 individuals with a history of sexual assault or other unwanted sexual experience(s) (Mage  = 34.71, 54.9% women, 77.5% white) who were recruited from MTurk. RESULTS: Results indicated significant positive relations among CSA, PTSD symptom severity, and disordered eating. CSA was found to be associated with disordered eating at high, but not low, levels of PTSD symptom severity. DISCUSSION: This study highlights the importance of assessing disordered eating and PTSD symptoms in individuals who report a history of CSA. Clinicians aiming to reduce their patients' symptoms of disordered eating may benefit from considering the potential role of PTSD symptom severity as a barrier to achieving treatment gains.

The role of positive emotion dysregulation in the relationship between childhood abuse and PTSD in a community sample of veterans.

BACKGROUND: The co-occurrence of childhood abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among United States military veterans is highly prevalent and clinically significant. Emotion dysregulation is one factor that has been found to underlie the association between childhood abuse and PTSD, yet past research has focused exclusively on dysregulation stemming from negative emotions. OBJECTIVE: The current study extends existing research by clarifying the role of positive emotion dysregulation in the relation between childhood abuse and PTSD in a community sample of military veterans. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Participants were 465 trauma-exposed military veterans in the community (Mage = 38.00, 71.6 % women, 69.5 % White). METHOD: Using structural equation modeling, we tested the indirect association of childhood abuse to PTSD symptom severity through positive emotion dysregulation. RESULTS: The hypothesized model showed adequate model fit, χ2 (32, n = 465) = 176.22, p < .001, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .10, 90 % CI [.08, .11], SRMR = .04. Results showed that childhood abuse was indirectly associated with PTSD symptom severity through positive emotion dysregulation. CONCLUSIONS: This finding highlights the potential utility of targeting positive emotion dysregulation in the detection and treatment of PTSD symptoms in veterans who experienced childhood abuse.

Impact of anxiety on dropping out of treatment for major depressive disorder at an intensive partial hospitalization program.

BACKGROUND: Premature treatment discontinuation (dropout) is a common problem among patients seeking treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD). To prevent treatment dropout, it is important to identify its associated risk factors. The impact anxiety has on treatment dropout for MDD is especially critical to investigate due to the high rates of comorbidity between anxiety and depressive disorders. Evidence for the degree to which anxiety reliably predicts treatment dropout for MDD remains inconclusive and has yet to be investigated at an adult partial hospitalization program. Examining this can help elucidate which factors predict dropout among patients who need intensive treatment for their depression. METHODS: Participants were patients seeking treatment for MDD at an adult partial hospitalization program (N = 461). A series of Chi-square tests and t tests were conducted to assess for any differences in frequencies of anxiety disorder comorbidities or mean scores of dimensional anxiety among patients who dropped out of treatment and those who did not. RESULTS: No significant associations between high baseline anxiety and early dropout were found (all P > .05). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that no specific actions need to be taken to prevent individuals with high baseline levels of anxiety from prematurely dropping out of a partial hospitalization program.

DSM-5 anxious distress specifier in patients with bipolar depression.

BACKGROUND: DSM-5 introduced the anxious distress specifier in recognition of the significance of anxiety in patients who are depressed. Studies have supported the validity of the specifier in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). In this report from the Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project, we examined the validity of the specifier in patients with bipolar depression. METHODS: Forty-nine patients with a principal diagnosis of bipolar depression and 369 with MDD were evaluated with semi-structured diagnostic interviews, including the DSM-5 Anxious Distress Specifier Interview (DADSI). The patients were rated on measures of depression, anxiety, and irritability, and completed self-report measures. RESULTS: The majority of patients with bipolar depression met the DSM-5 anxious distress specifier, no different than the frequency in patients with MDD. The DADSI was significantly correlated with other measures of anxiety, and more highly correlated with other measures of anxiety than with measures of depression and irritability. Patients with panic and generalized anxiety disorder scored higher on the DADSI than patients without an anxiety disorder. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our study indicate that anxious distress is common in patients with bipolar depression and support the validity of the DSM-5 anxious distress specifier.

Principal Diagnoses in Psychiatric Outpatients With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Implications for Screening Recommendations.

In this study, we examined the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in 3800 psychiatric outpatients with different principal diagnoses. For all disorders identified as a principal diagnosis, we compared patients' odds ratios of PTSD to all other patients in the sample. Approximately one-sixth of the sample (n = 663, 17.4%) was diagnosed with PTSD, including 417 patients with current PTSD and 246 with PTSD in partial remission. Patients with principal bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder (MDD) demonstrated higher rates of PTSD compared with those without principal bipolar and MDD. For most psychiatric outpatients with PTSD, the principal diagnosis for which they seek treatment is not PTSD, but rather a mood disorder. This highlights the importance of screening for PTSD, particularly in patients with a principal diagnosis for which the prevalence of PTSD is relatively high, namely, MDD, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, and borderline personality disorder.

Is the DSM-5 Anxious Distress Specifier Interview a valid measure of anxiety in patients with generalized anxiety disorder: A comparison to the Hamilton Anxiety Scale.

DSM-5 includes criteria for an anxious distress specifier for major depressive disorder, and measures have been developed to assess these criteria. The validity of measures of the severity of anxious distress has been established in depressed patients. In the present report from the Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project, we examined whether a severity measure of anxious distress was as valid as the Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAMA) as a measure of the severity of anxiety in patients with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Eighty-five patients with GAD were interviewed by trained raters who administered the DSM-5 Anxious Distress Specifier Interview (DADSI), HAMA, and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD). The patients completed self-report measures of depression, anxiety, and irritability. The DADSI and HAMA were significantly correlated (r  0.52, p < .001). Both the DADSI and HAMA were more highly correlated with measures of anxiety than with measures of the other symptom domains. The HAMD was significantly more highly correlated with the HAMA than with the DADSI. Both measures were significantly correlated with measures of positive mental health, functioning, life satisfaction, and general well-being. Both measures were sensitive to change in response to treatment. Both the DADSI and HAMA were valid measures of anxiety severity in patients with GAD, though the HAMA was more highly confounded with the HAMD than the DADSI. The DADSI is briefer than the HAMA, and thus may be more practical to use in research studies as well as clinical practice.

Is the DSM-5 anxious distress specifier sufficient for measuring anxiety in depressed patients? Implications for measurement-based care.

BACKGROUND: We examined whether a self-report measure of the DSM-5 anxious distress specifier, the Clinically Useful Depression Outcome Scale Anxious Distress Specifier Subscale (CUDOS-A), was as valid as a broader measure of the severity of anxiety, the Clinically Useful Anxiety Outcome Scale (CUXOS), in patients with depression. METHODS: Two hundred ninety-four patients with major depressive disorder were administered a semi-structured interview. The patients completed self-report measures of depression, anxiety, and irritability. Sensitivity to change was examined in a subset of patients. RESULTS: Both the CUDOS-A and CUXOS were more highly correlated with measures of anxiety than with measures of the other symptom domains. Patients with anxiety disorders scored significantly higher on both measures than did patients with no current anxiety disorder. Both measures were equally correlated with measures of coping, general well-being, and functioning. A large effect size of treatment was found for both measures (CUDOS-A: d = 1.2; CUXOS: d = 1.3). CONCLUSIONS: Both the CUDOS-A and CUXOS were valid self-report measures of anxiety symptom severity in patients with depression. Because anxiety is common in patients with depression, the addition of a small number of items assessing the DSM-5 anxious distress criteria should be added to depression measures and used in measurement-based care efforts.

Reliability and validity of a self-report scale for daily assessments of the severity of anxiety symptoms.

BACKGROUND: To evaluate the efficacy of rapidly effective treatments it is necessary to use measures that are designed to assess symptom severity over short intervals. In the present report from the Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project, we modified our previously published anxiety scale and examined the reliability and validity of a daily version of the Clinically Useful Anxiety Outcome Scale (CUXOS-D, D indicates daily version). METHODS: Two thousand four hundred and ninety-one patients presenting for treatment to a partial hospital program completed the CUXOS-D as part of their initial paperwork and on a daily basis thereafter. Test-retest reliability was examined in 50 patients who completed the CUXOS-D twice on the same day. A subset of 73 patients was interviewed by a trained rater who administered the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA) at baseline and on the day of discharge. RESULTS: The CUXOS-D had high internal consistency and test-retest reliability and was more highly correlated with another measure of anxiety symptoms than depressive symptoms. CUXOS-D scores progressively declined during the course of treatment, and scores on each successive day were significantly lower than the preceding day. The change in CUXOS-D scores was significantly correlated with a change in HAMA scores (r = 0.61, p < .001). A large effect size was found for both measures (CUXOS-D: d = 1.22; HAMA: d = 0.93). DISCUSSION: In a large sample of partial hospital patients mostly diagnosed with mood and anxiety disorders, we demonstrated some aspects of the reliability and validity of the CUXOS-D.

Discourse Coherence as a Cue to Reference in Word Learning: Evidence for Discourse Bootstrapping.

Word learning depends critically on the use of linguistic context to constrain the likely meanings of words. However, the mechanisms by which children infer word meaning from linguistic context are still poorly understood. In this study, we asked whether adults (n = 58) and 2- to 6-year-old children (n = 180) use discourse coherence relations (i.e., the meaningful relationships between elements within a discourse) to constrain their interpretation of novel words. Specifically, we showed participants videos of novel animals exchanging objects. These videos were accompanied by a linguistic description of the events in which we manipulated a single word within a sentence (and vs. because) in order to alter the causal and temporal relations between the events in the discourse (e.g., "One animal handed the baby to the other animal [and/because] the baby started crying in the talfa's arms"). We then asked participants which animal (the giver or the receiver) was the referent of the novel word. Across two experiments, we found evidence that young children used the causal and temporal relations in each discourse to constrain their interpretations of novel words.