Patterns of Hemorrhagic Disease in White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Great Plains of the USA, 1982-2020.

Hemorrhagic disease (HD) of deer is caused by epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) or bluetongue virus (BTV) and is considered one of the most important viral diseases of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Despite evidence of changing patterns of HD in the northeastern and upper midwestern US, the historical and current patterns of HD in the Great Plains remain poorly described. We used results from an annual survey documenting HD mortality to characterize historic and current patterns of HD in the northern and central Great Plains (North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma), US, between 1982 and 2020. Further, we assessed temporal change using linear regression to determine change in annual reporting intensity (percentage of counties in a state with reported HD) and change in reporting frequency (the number of years a county or state reported HD) during each decade between 1982 and 2020. Across the 38-yr study period, HD reports expanded northeast across latitude and longitude. Intensity of HD reports significantly increased during this period for three (North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas) of five states examined. Frequency of reports also increased for all five states. Such changes in northern latitudes might lead to increased deer mortality in regions where HD epizootics have been historically less frequent. Understanding how patterns of HD are changing on the landscape is important when considering future deer management in the face of other mortality factors.

Gentrification drives patterns of alpha and beta diversity in cities.

While there is increasing recognition that social processes in cities like gentrification have ecological consequences, we lack nuanced understanding of the ways gentrification affects urban biodiversity. We analyzed a large camera trap dataset of mammals (>500 g) to evaluate how gentrification impacts species richness and community composition across 23 US cities. After controlling for the negative effect of impervious cover, gentrified parts of cities had the highest mammal species richness. Change in community composition was associated with gentrification in a few cities, which were mostly located along the West Coast. At the species level, roughly half (11 of 21 mammals) had higher occupancy in gentrified parts of a city, especially when impervious cover was low. Our results indicate that the impacts of gentrification extend to nonhuman animals, which provides further evidence that some aspects of nature in cities, such as wildlife, are chronically inaccessible to marginalized human populations.

Association of size, climatic factors, and mercury body burdens with movement behavior in American alligators.

Animal movement behavior provides insight into organismal and ecological function. These functions are often disturbed by anthropogenic influences, such as urbanization and habitat fragmentation, yet the effects of long-term exposures to environmental contaminants on movement have yet to be examined. The long lifespans and broad diets of crocodilians often lead to bioaccumulation of persistent contaminants and confer a marked vulnerability to consequent physiological effects. In this study, we investigate the relationships between blood concentrations of mercury (Hg), a widespread contaminant with well characterized neurotoxicity, and movement patterns in free living, naturally exposed American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). We sampled adult male alligators from two former nuclear cooling reservoirs with different Hg contamination histories and placed GPS transmitters on a subset of individuals from each reservoir (13 total). Data collected over the ensuing two years were analyzed using a linear mixed effects framework combined with AICc model selection to resolve the relationships linking seasonal alligator movement (daily activity (s) and daily distance (m)) and home range to climate conditions, individual traits, and blood Hg concentrations (mg/kg; wet weight). We found that climate conditions, alligator size (snout-vent-length), and blood Hg concentrations all influence alligator daily activity but do not contribute to alligator daily movement (distance). Furthermore, we found that blood Hg concentrations were strongly correlated with seasonal home range size where individuals with elevated Hg had larger home ranges in spring, fall, and winter. These findings provide insight into how climate, anthropogenic contaminants, and individual traits relate to alligator movement patterns across seasons.

Nesting, brood rearing, and summer habitat selection by translocated greater sage-grouse in North Dakota, USA.

Human enterprise has led to large-scale changes in landscapes and altered wildlife population distribution and abundance, necessitating efficient and effective conservation strategies for impacted species. Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; hereafter sage-grouse) are a widespread sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) obligate species that has experienced population declines since the mid-1900s resulting from habitat loss and expansion of anthropogenic features into sagebrush ecosystems. Habitat loss is especially evident in North Dakota, USA, on the northeastern fringe of sage-grouse' distribution, where a remnant population remains despite recent development of energy-related infrastructure. Resource managers in this region have determined a need to augment sage-grouse populations using translocation techniques that can be important management tools for countering species decline from range contraction. Although translocations are a common tool for wildlife management, very little research has evaluated habitat following translocation, to track individual behaviors such as habitat selection and fidelity to the release site, which can help inform habitat requirements to guide selection of future release sites. We provide an example where locations from previously released radio-marked sage-grouse are used in a resource selection function framework to evaluate habitat selection following translocation and identify areas of seasonal habitat to inform habitat management and potential restoration needs. We also evaluated possible changes in seasonal habitat since the late 1980s using spatial data provided by the Rangeland Analysis Platform coupled with resource selection modeling results. Our results serve as critical baseline information for habitat used by translocated individuals across life stages in this study area, and will inform future evaluations of population performance and potential for long-term recovery.

Predicting greater sage-grouse habitat selection at the southern periphery of their range.

Mapping suitable habitat is an important process in wildlife conservation planning. Species distribution reflects habitat selection processes occurring across multiple spatio-temporal scales. Because habitat selection may be driven by different factors at different scales, conservation planners require information at the scale of the intervention to plan effective management actions. Previous research has described habitat selection processes shaping the distribution of greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; sage-grouse) at the range-wide scale. Finer-scale information for applications within jurisdictional units inside the species range is lacking, yet necessary, because state wildlife agencies are the management authority for sage-grouse in the United States. We quantified seasonal second-order habitat selection for sage-grouse across the state of Utah to produce spatio-temporal predictions of their distribution at the southern periphery of the species range. We used location data obtained from sage-grouse marked with very-high-frequency radio-transmitters and lek location data collected between 1998 and 2013 to quantify species habitat selection in relation to a suite of topographic, edaphic, climatic, and anthropogenic variables using random forest algorithms. Sage-grouse selected for greater sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) cover, higher elevations, and gentler slopes and avoided lower precipitations and higher temperatures. The strength of responses to habitat variables varied across seasons. Anthropogenic variables previously reported as affecting their range-wide distribution (i.e., roads, powerlines, communication towers, and agricultural development) were not ranked as top predictors at our focal scale. Other than strong selection for sagebrush cover, the responses we observed differed from what has been reported at the range-wide scale. These differences likely reflect the unique climatic, geographic, and topographic context found in the southern peripheral area of the species distribution compared to range-wide environmental gradients. Our results highlight the importance of considering appropriateness of scale when planning conservation actions for wide-ranging species.

Using satellite-derived estimates of plant phenological rhythms to predict sage-grouse nesting chronology.

The "green wave" hypothesis posits that during spring consumers track spatial gradients in emergent vegetation and associated foraging opportunities. This idea has largely been invoked to explain animal migration patterns, yet the general phenomenon underlies trends in vertebrate reproductive chronology as well. We evaluated the utility of this hypothesis for predicting spatial variation in nest initiation of greater sage-grouse (Centrocerus urophasianus), a species of conservation concern in western North America. We used the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to map the green wave across elevation and then compiled dates and locations of >450 sage-grouse nests from 20 study sites (2000-2014) to model nest initiation as a function of the start of the growing season (SOS), defined here as the maximum daily rate of increase in NDVI. Individual sites were drawn from three ecoregions, distributed over 4.5° latitude, and spanning 2,300 m in elevation, which captured the climatic, edaphic, and floristic diversity of sagebrush ecosystems in the southern half of current sage-grouse range. As predicted, SOS displayed a significant, positive relationship with elevation, occurring 1.3 days later for each 100 m increase in elevation. In turn, sage-grouse nest initiation followed SOS by 22 ± 10 days (r2  = .57), with hatch dates falling on or just prior to the peak of the growing season. By timing nesting to the green wave, sage-grouse chicks hatched when the abundance of protein-rich invertebrate biomass is hypothesized to be nearing a seasonal high. This adaptation likely represents a strategy for maximizing reproductive success in the arid, variable environments that define sagebrush ecosystems. Given projected changes in climate and land use, these results can be used to predict periods of relative sensitivity to habitat disturbance for sage-grouse. Moreover, the near real-time availability of satellite imagery offers a heretofore underutilized means of mapping the green wave, planning habitat restoration, and monitoring range conditions.

How climate impacts the composition of wolf-killed elk in northern Yellowstone National Park.

While the functional response of predators is commonly measured, recent work has revealed that the age and sex composition of prey killed is often a better predictor of prey population dynamics because the reproductive value of adult females is usually higher than that of males or juveniles. Climate is often an important mediating factor in determining the composition of predator kills, but we currently lack a mechanistic understanding of how the multiple facets of climate interact with prey abundance and demography to influence the composition of predator kills. Over 20 winters, we monitored 17 wolf packs in Yellowstone National Park and recorded the sex, age and nutritional condition of kills of their dominant prey-elk-in both early and late winter periods when elk are in relatively good and relatively poor condition, respectively. Nutritional condition (as indicated by per cent marrow fat) of wolf-killed elk varied markedly with summer plant productivity, snow water equivalent (SWE) and winter period. Moreover, marrow was poorer for wolf-killed bulls and especially for calves than it was for cows. Wolf prey composition was influenced by a complex set of climatic and endogenous variables. In early winter, poor plant growth in either year t or t - 1, or relatively low elk abundance, increased the odds of wolves killing bulls relative to cows. Calves were most likely to get killed when elk abundance was high and when the forage productivity they experienced in utero was poor. In late winter, low SWE and a relatively large elk population increased the odds of wolves killing calves relative to cows, whereas low SWE and poor vegetation productivity 1 year prior together increased the likelihood of wolves killing a bull instead of a cow. Since climate has a strong influence on whether wolves prey on cows (who, depending on their age, are the key reproductive components of the population) or lower reproductive value of calves and bulls, our results suggest that climate can drive wolf predation to be more or less additive from year to year.

Weak spatiotemporal response of prey to predation risk in a freely interacting system.

The extent to which prey space use actively minimizes predation risk continues to ignite controversy. Methodological reasons that have hindered consensus include inconsistent measurements of predation risk, biased spatiotemporal scales at which responses are measured and lack of robust null expectations. We addressed all three challenges in a comprehensive analysis of the spatiotemporal responses of adult female elk (Cervus elaphus) to the risk of predation by wolves (Canis lupus) during winter in northern Yellowstone, USA. We quantified spatial overlap between the winter home ranges of GPS-collared elk and three measures of predation risk: the intensity of wolf space use, the distribution of wolf-killed elk and vegetation openness. We also assessed whether elk varied their use of areas characterized by more or less predation risk across hours of the day, and estimated encounter rates between simultaneous elk and wolf pack trajectories. We determined whether observed values were significantly lower than expected if elk movements were random with reference to predation risk using a null model approach. Although a small proportion of elk did show a tendency to minimize use of open vegetation at specific times of the day, overall we highlight a notable absence of spatiotemporal response by female elk to the risk of predation posed by wolves in northern Yellowstone. Our results suggest that predator-prey interactions may not always result in strong spatiotemporal patterns of avoidance.

Do prey select for vacant hunting domains to minimize a multi-predator threat?

Many ecosystems contain sympatric predator species that hunt in different places and times. We tested whether this provides vacant hunting domains, places and times where and when predators are least active, that prey use to minimize threats from multiple predators simultaneously. We measured how northern Yellowstone elk (Cervus elaphus) responded to wolves (Canis lupus) and cougars (Puma concolor), and found that elk selected for areas outside the high-risk domains of both predators consistent with the vacant domain hypothesis. This enabled elk to avoid one predator without necessarily increasing its exposure to the other. Our results demonstrate how the diel cycle can serve as a key axis of the predator hunting domain that prey exploit to manage predation risk from multiple sources. We argue that a multi-predator, spatiotemporal framework is vital to understand the causes and consequences of prey spatial response to predation risk in environments with more than one predator.

Correction: The effects of electric power lines on the breeding ecology of greater sage-grouse.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209968.].

The effects of electric power lines on the breeding ecology of greater sage-grouse.

Anthropogenic infrastructure can negatively affect wildlife through direct mortality and/or displacement behaviors. Some tetranoids (grouse spp.) species are particularly vulnerable to tall anthropogenic structures because they evolved in ecosystems void of vertical structures. In western North America, electric power transmission and distribution lines (power lines) occur in sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) landscapes within the range of the greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus; sage-grouse). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommended using buffer zones near leks to mitigate the potential impacts of power lines on sage-grouse. However, recommended buffer distances are inconsistent across state and federal agencies because data are lacking. To address this, we evaluated the effects of power lines on sage-grouse breeding ecology within Utah, portions of southeastern Idaho, and southwestern Wyoming from 1998-2013. Overall, power lines negatively affected lek trends up to a distance of 2.7 and 2.8 km, respectively. Power lines died not affect lek persistence. Female sage-grouse avoided transmission lines during the nesting and brooding seasons at distances up to 1.1 and 0.8 km, respectively. Nest and brood success were negatively affected by transmission lines up to distances of 2.6 and 1.1 km, respectively. Distribution lines did not appear to affect sage-grouse habitat selection or reproductive fitness. Our analyses demonstrated the value of sagebrush cover in mitigating potential power line impacts. Managers can minimize the effects of new transmission power lines by placing them in existing anthropogenic corridors and/or incorporating buffers at least 2.8 km from active leks. Given the uncertainty we observed in our analyses regarding sage-grouse response to distribution lines coupled with their role in providing electric power service directly to individual consumers, we recommend that buffers for these power lines be considered on a case-by-case basis. Micrositing to avoid important habitats and habitat reclamation may reduce the potential impacts of new power line construction.

Coupling of biologically active steroids to conjugating arms through ether linkages for use in immunochemistry.

Conjugation of haptens through ether linkages avoids leakage problems in immunoassays, but this procedure is not easily applied to most steroids that bear low reacting hydroxyls. A new technique allowing the ether coupling of biologically active steroids with conjugating arms in mild conditions compatible with thermosensitive protecting groups is presented. In the first step, the solvent (an aromatic hydrocarbon) was dehydrated by azeotropic distillation in a soxhlet apparatus using a cartridge filled with 0.3 nm and 0.4 nm molecular sieves. In this protected medium, a thallium steroid alkoxide was completely formed by reaction of the steroid with thallium ethoxide and by the continuous elimination of ethanol. The halogenated chain was then introduced into the same medium and reacted in the absence of moisture to give the ether. 17beta-Hydroxy and 11alpha-hydroxy derivatives were involved in this reaction. The coupling was effective for all of the compounds tested after 2-36 h of reaction time and at temperatures between 80 and 140 degrees C. The conjugates were at least 95% pure, and yields ranged from 15 to 95%.