PMP22 duplication dysregulates lipid homeostasis and plasma membrane organization in developing human Schwann cells.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A (CMT1A) is the most common inherited peripheral neuropathy caused by a 1.5 Mb tandem duplication of chromosome 17 harbouring the PMP22 gene. This dose-dependent overexpression of PMP22 results in disrupted Schwann cell myelination of peripheral nerves. To obtain better insights into the underlying pathogenic mechanisms in CMT1A, we investigated the role of PMP22 duplication in cellular homeostasis in CMT1A mouse models and in patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells differentiated into Schwann cell precursors (iPSC-SCPs). We performed lipidomic profiling and bulk RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) on sciatic nerves of two developing CMT1A mouse models and on CMT1A patient-derived iPSC-SCPs. For the sciatic nerves of the CMT1A mice, cholesterol and lipid metabolism was downregulated in a dose-dependent manner throughout development. For the CMT1A iPSC-SCPs, transcriptional analysis unveiled a strong suppression of genes related to autophagy and lipid metabolism. Gene ontology enrichment analysis identified disturbances in pathways related to plasma membrane components and cell receptor signalling. Lipidomic analysis confirmed the severe dysregulation in plasma membrane lipids, particularly sphingolipids, in CMT1A iPSC-SCPs. Furthermore, we identified reduced lipid raft dynamics, disturbed plasma membrane fluidity and impaired cholesterol incorporation and storage, all of which could result from altered lipid storage homeostasis in the patient-derived CMT1A iPSC-SCPs. Importantly, this phenotype could be rescued by stimulating autophagy and lipolysis. We conclude that PMP22 duplication disturbs intracellular lipid storage and leads to a more disordered plasma membrane owing to an alteration in the lipid composition, which might ultimately lead to impaired axo-glial interactions. Moreover, targeting lipid handling and metabolism could hold promise for the treatment of patients with CMT1A.

Sex differences in spontaneous behavior and cognition in mice using an automated behavior monitoring system.

Isolation of sex differences as a key characteristic underlying neurobehavioral differentiation is an essential component of studies in neuroscience. The current study sought to address this concern by observing behavioral differences using an automated home cage system for neurobehavioral assessment, a method rapidly increasing in use due to advances in technology and advantages such as reduced handling stress and cross-lab variability. Sex differences in C57BL/6 mice arose for motor activity and circadian-linked behavior, with females being more active compared to males, and males having a stronger anticipatory increase in activity leading up to the onset of the light phase compared to females. These activity differences were observed not only across the lifespan, but also in different genetic background mouse strains across different testing sites showing the generalizability and robustness of these observed effects. Activity differences were also observed in performance on a spatial learning and reversal task with females making more responses and receiving a corresponding elevation in reward pellets. Notably, there were no sex differences in learning nor achieved accuracy, suggesting these observed effects were predominantly in activity. The outcomes of this study align with previous reports showcasing differences in activity between males and females. The comparison across strains and testing sites showed robust and reproducible differences in behavior between female and male mice that are relevant to consider when designing behavioral studies. Furthermore, the observed sex differences in performance on the learning and reversal procedure raise concern for interpretation of behavior differences between sexes due to the attribution of these differences to motor activity rather than cognition.

The systemic inhibition of the terminal complement system reduces neuroinflammation but does not improve motor function in mouse models of CMT1A with overexpressed PMP22.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A (CMT1A) is the most prevalent hereditary demyelinating neuropathy. This autosomal, dominantly inherited disease is caused by a duplication on chromosome 17p which includes the peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) gene. There is clinical evidence that the disability in CMT1A is to a large extend due to axonal damage rather than demyelination. Over-expression of PMP22 is recently thought to impede cholesterol trafficking causing a total shutdown of local cholesterol and lipid synthesis in the Schwann cells, thus disturbing their ability to remyelinate. But there is a large variety in disease burden between CMT1A patients with the same genetic defect, indicating the presence of modifying factors that affect disease severity. One of these potential factors is the immune system. Several reports have described patients with co-occurrence of CMT1A with chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease or Guillain-Barré syndrome. We have previously shown in multiple animal models that the innate immune system and specifically the terminal complement system is a driver of inflammatory demyelination. To test the contribution of the terminal complement system to neuroinflammation and disease progression in CMT1A, we inhibited systemic complement C6 in two transgenic mouse models for CMT1A, the C3-PMP22 and C3-PMP22 c-JunP0Cre models. Both models over-express human PMP22, and one (C3-PMP22 c-JunP0Cre) also has a Schwann cell-specific knockout of c-Jun, a crucial regulator of myelination controlling autophagy. We found that systemic inhibition of C6 using antisense oligonucleotides affects the neuroinflammation, Rho GTPase and ERK/MAPK signalling pathways in the CMT1A mouse models. The cholesterol synthesis pathway remained unaffected. Analysis of motor function during treatment with C6 antisense oligonucleotides did not reveal any significant improvement in the CMT1A mouse models. This study shows that the contribution of the terminal complement system to progressive loss of motor function in the CMT1A mouse models tested is limited.

Systematic assessment of the replicability and generalizability of preclinical findings: Impact of protocol harmonization across laboratory sites.

The influence of protocol standardization between laboratories on their replicability of preclinical results has not been addressed in a systematic way. While standardization is considered good research practice as a means to control for undesired external noise (i.e., highly variable results), some reports suggest that standardized protocols may lead to idiosyncratic results, thus undermining replicability. Through the EQIPD consortium, a multi-lab collaboration between academic and industry partners, we aimed to elucidate parameters that impact the replicability of preclinical animal studies. To this end, 3 experimental protocols were implemented across 7 laboratories. The replicability of results was determined using the distance travelled in an open field after administration of pharmacological compounds known to modulate locomotor activity (MK-801, diazepam, and clozapine) in C57BL/6 mice as a worked example. The goal was to determine whether harmonization of study protocols across laboratories improves the replicability of the results and whether replicability can be further improved by systematic variation (heterogenization) of 2 environmental factors (time of testing and light intensity during testing) within laboratories. Protocols were tested in 3 consecutive stages and differed in the extent of harmonization across laboratories and standardization within laboratories: stage 1, minimally aligned across sites (local protocol); stage 2, fully aligned across sites (harmonized protocol) with and without systematic variation (standardized and heterogenized cohort); and stage 3, fully aligned across sites (standardized protocol) with a different compound. All protocols resulted in consistent treatment effects across laboratories, which were also replicated within laboratories across the different stages. Harmonization of protocols across laboratories reduced between-lab variability substantially compared to each lab using their local protocol. In contrast, the environmental factors chosen to introduce systematic variation within laboratories did not affect the behavioral outcome. Therefore, heterogenization did not reduce between-lab variability further compared to the harmonization of the standardized protocol. Altogether, these findings demonstrate that subtle variations between lab-specific study protocols may introduce variation across independent replicate studies even after protocol harmonization and that systematic heterogenization of environmental factors may not be sufficient to account for such between-lab variation. Differences in replicability of results within and between laboratories highlight the ubiquity of study-specific variation due to between-lab variability, the importance of transparent and fine-grained reporting of methodologies and research protocols, and the importance of independent study replication.

Glycine receptor subunit-ß-deficiency in a mouse model of spasticity results in attenuated physical performance, growth, and muscle strength.

Spasticity is the most common neurological disorder associated with increased muscle contraction causing impaired movement and gait. The aim of this study was to characterize the physical performance, skeletal muscle function, and phenotype of mice with a hereditary spastic mutation (B6.Cg-Glrbspa/J). Motor function, gait, and physical activity of juvenile and adult spastic mice and the morphological, histological, and mechanical characteristics of their soleus and gastrocnemius medialis muscles were compared with those of their wild-type (WT) littermates. Spastic mice showed attenuated growth, impaired motor function, and low physical activity. Gait of spastic mice was characterized by a typical hopping pattern. Spastic mice showed lower muscle forces, which were related to the smaller physiological cross-sectional area of spastic muscles. The muscle-tendon complex length-force relationship of adult gastrocnemius medialis was shifted toward shorter lengths, which was explained by attenuated longitudinal tibia growth. Spastic gastrocnemius medialis was more fatigue resistant than WT gastrocnemius medialis. This was largely explained by a higher mitochondrial content in muscle fibers and relatively higher percentage of slow-type muscle fibers. Muscles of juvenile spastic mice showed similar differences compared with WT juvenile mice, but these were less pronounced than between adult mice. This study shows that in spastic mice, disturbed motor function and gait is likely to be the result of hyperactivity of skeletal muscle and impaired skeletal muscle growth, which progress with age.

Long-Term Effects of Low-Intensity Blast Non-Inertial Brain Injury on Anxiety-Like Behaviors in Mice: Home-Cage Monitoring Assessments.

Mild traumatic brain injury induced by low-intensity blast (LIB) exposure poses concerns in military personnel. Using an open-field, non-inertial blast model and assessments by conventional behavioral tests, our previous studies revealed early-phase anxiety-like behaviors in LIB-exposed mice. However, the impact of LIB upon long-term anxiety-like behaviors requires clarification. This study applied a highly sensitive automated home-cage monitoring (HCM) system, which minimized human intervention and environmental changes, to assess anxiety-like responses in mice 3 months after LIB exposure. Initial assessment of 72-h spontaneous activities in a natural cage condition over multiple light and dark phases showed altered sheltering behaviors. LIB-exposed mice exhibited a subtle, but significantly decreased, duration of short shelter visits as compared to sham controls. Other measured responses between LIB-exposed mice and sham controls were insignificant. When behavioral assessments were performed in a challenged condition using an aversive spotlight, LIB-exposed mice demonstrated a significantly higher frequency of movements of shorter distance and duration per movement. Taken together, these findings demonstrated the presence of chronic anxiety-like behaviors assessed by the HCM system under both natural and challenged conditions in mice occurring post-LIB exposure. This model thus provides a platform to test for screening and interventions on anxiety disorders occurring after LIB non-inertial brain injury.

Low-intensity blast induces acute glutamatergic hyperexcitability in mouse hippocampus leading to long-term learning deficits and altered expression of proteins involved in synaptic plasticity and serine protease inhibitors.

Neurocognitive consequences of blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) pose significant concerns for military service members and veterans with the majority of "invisible injury." However, the underlying mechanism of such mild bTBI by low-intensity blast (LIB) exposure for long-term cognitive and mental deficits remains elusive. Our previous studies have shown that mice exposed to LIB result in nanoscale ultrastructural abnormalities in the absence of gross or apparent cellular damage in the brain. Here we tested the hypothesis that glutamatergic hyperexcitability may contribute to long-term learning deficits. Using brain slice electrophysiological recordings, we found an increase in averaged frequencies with a burst pattern of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) in hippocampal CA3 neurons in LIB-exposed mice at 1- and 7-days post injury, which was blocked by a specific NMDA receptor antagonist AP5. In addition, cognitive function assessed at 3-months post LIB exposure by automated home-cage monitoring showed deficits in dynamic patterns of discrimination learning and cognitive flexibility in LIB-exposed mice. Collected hippocampal tissue was further processed for quantitative global-proteomic analysis. Advanced data-independent acquisition for quantitative tandem mass spectrometry analysis identified altered expression of proteins involved in synaptic plasticity and serine protease inhibitors in LIB-exposed mice. Some were correlated with the ability of discrimination learning and cognitive flexibility. These findings show that acute glutamatergic hyperexcitability in the hippocampus induced by LIB may contribute to long-term cognitive dysfunction and protein alterations. Studies using this military-relevant mouse model of mild bTBI provide valuable insights into developing a potential therapeutic strategy to ameliorate hyperexcitability-modulated LIB injuries.

Measuring Behavior in the Home Cage: Study Design, Applications, Challenges, and Perspectives.

The reproducibility crisis (or replication crisis) in biomedical research is a particularly existential and under-addressed issue in the field of behavioral neuroscience, where, in spite of efforts to standardize testing and assay protocols, several known and unknown sources of confounding environmental factors add to variance. Human interference is a major contributor to variability both within and across laboratories, as well as novelty-induced anxiety. Attempts to reduce human interference and to measure more "natural" behaviors in subjects has led to the development of automated home-cage monitoring systems. These systems enable prolonged and longitudinal recordings, and provide large continuous measures of spontaneous behavior that can be analyzed across multiple time scales. In this review, a diverse team of neuroscientists and product developers share their experiences using such an automated monitoring system that combines Noldus PhenoTyper® home-cages and the video-based tracking software, EthoVision® XT, to extract digital biomarkers of motor, emotional, social and cognitive behavior. After presenting our working definition of a "home-cage", we compare home-cage testing with more conventional out-of-cage tests (e.g., the open field) and outline the various advantages of the former, including opportunities for within-subject analyses and assessments of circadian and ultradian activity. Next, we address technical issues pertaining to the acquisition of behavioral data, such as the fine-tuning of the tracking software and the potential for integration with biotelemetry and optogenetics. Finally, we provide guidance on which behavioral measures to emphasize, how to filter, segment, and analyze behavior, and how to use analysis scripts. We summarize how the PhenoTyper has applications to study neuropharmacology as well as animal models of neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric illness. Looking forward, we examine current challenges and the impact of new developments. Examples include the automated recognition of specific behaviors, unambiguous tracking of individuals in a social context, the development of more animal-centered measures of behavior and ways of dealing with large datasets. Together, we advocate that by embracing standardized home-cage monitoring platforms like the PhenoTyper, we are poised to directly assess issues pertaining to reproducibility, and more importantly, measure features of rodent behavior under more ethologically relevant scenarios.

Assessment of Behavioral Characteristics With Procedures of Minimal Human Interference in the mdx Mouse Model for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe, progressive neuromuscular disorder caused by mutations in the DMD gene resulting in loss of functional dystrophin protein. The muscle dystrophin isoform is essential to protect muscles from contraction-induced damage. However, most dystrophin isoforms are expressed in the brain. In addition to progressive muscle weakness, many DMD patients therefore also exhibit intellectual and behavioral abnormalities. The most commonly used mouse model for DMD, the mdx mouse, lacks only the full-length dystrophin isoforms and has been extensively characterized for muscle pathology. In this study, we assessed behavioral effects of a lack of full-length dystrophins on spontaneous behavior, discrimination and reversal learning, anxiety, and short-term spatial memory and compared performance between male and female mdx mice. In contrast to our previous study using only female mdx mice, we could not reproduce the earlier observed reversal learning deficit. However, we did notice small differences in the number of visits made during the Y-maze and dark-light box. Results indicate that it is advisable to establish standard operating procedures specific to behavioral testing in mdx mice to allow the detection of the subtle phenotypic differences and to eliminate inter and intra laboratory variance.

Reproducibility via coordinated standardization: a multi-center study in a Shank2 genetic rat model for Autism Spectrum Disorders.

Inconsistent findings between laboratories are hampering scientific progress and are of increasing public concern. Differences in laboratory environment is a known factor contributing to poor reproducibility of findings between research sites, and well-controlled multisite efforts are an important next step to identify the relevant factors needed to reduce variation in study outcome between laboratories. Through harmonization of apparatus, test protocol, and aligned and non-aligned environmental variables, the present study shows that behavioral pharmacological responses in Shank2 knockout (KO) rats, a model of synaptic dysfunction relevant to autism spectrum disorders, were highly replicable across three research centers. All three sites reliably observed a hyperactive and repetitive behavioral phenotype in KO rats compared to their wild-type littermates as well as a dose-dependent phenotype attenuation following acute injections of a selective mGluR1 antagonist. These results show that reproducibility in preclinical studies can be obtained and emphasizes the need for high quality and rigorous methodologies in scientific research. Considering the observed external validity, the present study also suggests mGluR1 as potential target for the treatment of autism spectrum disorders.

Simultaneous assessment of cognitive function, circadian rhythm, and spontaneous activity in aging mice.

Cognitive function declines substantially with age in both humans and animal models. In humans, this decline is associated with decreases in independence and quality of life. Although the methodology for analysis of cognitive function in human models is relatively well established, similar analyses in animal models have many technical issues (e.g., unintended experimenter bias, motivational issues, stress, and testing during the light phase of the light dark cycle) that limit interpretation of the results. These caveats, and others, potentially bias the interpretation of studies in rodents and prevent the application of current tests of learning and memory as part of an overall healthspan assessment in rodent models of aging. The goal of this study was to establish the methodology to assess cognitive function in aging animals that addresses many of these concerns. Here, we use a food reward-based discrimination procedure with minimal stress in C57Bl/6J male mice at 6, 21, and 27 months of age, followed by a reversal task to assess behavioral flexibility. Importantly, the procedures minimize issues related to between-experimenter confounds and are conducted during both the dark and light phases of the light dark cycle in a home-cage setting. During cognitive testing, we were able to assess multiple measures of spontaneous movement and diurnal activity in young and aged mice including, distance moved, velocity, and acceleration over a 90-h period. Both initial discrimination and reversal learning significantly decreased with age and, similar to rats and humans, not all old mice demonstrated impairments in learning with age. These results permitted classification of animals based on their cognitive status. Analysis of movement parameters indicated decreases in distance moved as well as velocity and acceleration with increasing age. Based on these data, we developed preliminary models indicating, as in humans, a close relationship exists between age-related movement parameters and cognitive ability. Our results provide a reliable method for assessing cognitive performance with minimal stress and simultaneously provide key information on movement and diurnal activity. These methods represent a novel approach to developing non-invasive healthspan measures in rodent models that allow standardization across laboratories.

Protein instability, haploinsufficiency, and cortical hyper-excitability underlie STXBP1 encephalopathy.

De novo heterozygous mutations in STXBP1/Munc18-1 cause early infantile epileptic encephalopathies (EIEE4, OMIM #612164) characterized by infantile epilepsy, developmental delay, intellectual disability, and can include autistic features. We characterized the cellular deficits for an allelic series of seven STXBP1 mutations and developed four mouse models that recapitulate the abnormal EEG activity and cognitive aspects of human STXBP1-encephalopathy. Disease-causing STXBP1 variants supported synaptic transmission to a variable extent on a null background, but had no effect when overexpressed on a heterozygous background. All disease variants had severely decreased protein levels. Together, these cellular studies suggest that impaired protein stability and STXBP1 haploinsufficiency explain STXBP1-encephalopathy and that, therefore, Stxbp1+/- mice provide a valid mouse model. Simultaneous video and EEG recordings revealed that Stxbp1+/- mice with different genomic backgrounds recapitulate the seizure/spasm phenotype observed in humans, characterized by myoclonic jerks and spike-wave discharges that were suppressed by the antiepileptic drug levetiracetam. Mice heterozygous for Stxbp1 in GABAergic neurons only, showed impaired viability, 50% died within 2-3 weeks, and the rest showed stronger epileptic activity. c-Fos staining implicated neocortical areas, but not other brain regions, as the seizure foci. Stxbp1+/- mice showed impaired cognitive performance, hyperactivity and anxiety-like behaviour, without altered social behaviour. Taken together, these data demonstrate the construct, face and predictive validity of Stxbp1+/- mice and point to protein instability, haploinsufficiency and imbalanced excitation in neocortex, as the underlying mechanism of STXBP1-encephalopathy. The mouse models reported here are valid models for development of therapeutic interventions targeting STXBP1-encephalopathy.

AHCODA-DB: a data repository with web-based mining tools for the analysis of automated high-content mouse phenomics data.

BACKGROUND: Systematic, standardized and in-depth phenotyping and data analyses of rodent behaviour empowers gene-function studies, drug testing and therapy design. However, no data repositories are currently available for standardized quality control, data analysis and mining at the resolution of individual mice. DESCRIPTION: Here, we present AHCODA-DB, a public data repository with standardized quality control and exclusion criteria aimed to enhance robustness of data, enabled with web-based mining tools for the analysis of individually and group-wise collected mouse phenotypic data. AHCODA-DB allows monitoring in vivo effects of compounds collected from conventional behavioural tests and from automated home-cage experiments assessing spontaneous behaviour, anxiety and cognition without human interference. AHCODA-DB includes such data from mutant mice (transgenics, knock-out, knock-in), (recombinant) inbred strains, and compound effects in wildtype mice and disease models. AHCODA-DB provides real time statistical analyses with single mouse resolution and versatile suite of data presentation tools. On March 9th, 2017 AHCODA-DB contained 650 k data points on 2419 parameters from 1563 mice. CONCLUSION: AHCODA-DB provides users with tools to systematically explore mouse behavioural data, both with positive and negative outcome, published and unpublished, across time and experiments with single mouse resolution. The standardized (automated) experimental settings and the large current dataset (1563 mice) in AHCODA-DB provide a unique framework for the interpretation of behavioural data and drug effects. The use of common ontologies allows data export to other databases such as the Mouse Phenome Database. Unbiased presentation of positive and negative data obtained under the highly standardized screening conditions increase cost efficiency of publicly funded mouse screening projects and help to reach consensus conclusions on drug responses and mouse behavioural phenotypes. The website is publicly accessible through https://public.sylics.com and can be viewed in every recent version of all commonly used browsers.

Within-strain variation in behavior differs consistently between common inbred strains of mice.

Genetic and environmental factors interact throughout life and give rise to individual differences, i.e., individuality. The diversifying effect of environmental factors is counteracted by genetic mechanisms to yield persistence of specific features (robustness). Here, we compared robustness between cohorts of isogenic mice of eight different commonly used strains by analyzing to what extent environmental variation contributed to individuality in each of the eight genotypes, using a previously published dataset. Behavior was assessed in the home-cage, providing control over environmental factors, to reveal within-strain variability in numerous spontaneous behaviors. Indeed, despite standardization and in line with previous studies, substantial variability among mice of the same inbred strain was observed. Strikingly, across a multidimensional set of 115 behavioral parameters, several strains consistently ranked high in within-strain variability (DBA/2J, 129S1/Sv A/J and NOD/LtJ), whereas other strains ranked low (C57BL/6J and BALB/c). Strain rankings of within-strain variability in behavior were confirmed in an independent, previously published behavioral dataset using conventional behavioral tests administered to different mice from the same breeding colonies. Together, these show that genetically inbred mouse strains consistently differ in phenotypic robustness against environmental variation, suggesting that genetic factors contribute to variation in robustness.

The light spot test: Measuring anxiety in mice in an automated home-cage environment.

Behavioral tests of animals in a controlled experimental setting provide a valuable tool to advance understanding of genotype-phenotype relations, and to study the effects of genetic and environmental manipulations. To optimally benefit from the increasing numbers of genetically engineered mice, reliable high-throughput methods for comprehensive behavioral phenotyping of mice lines have become a necessity. Here, we describe the development and validation of an anxiety test, the light spot test, that allows for unsupervised, automated, high-throughput testing of mice in a home-cage system. This automated behavioral test circumvents bias introduced by pretest handling, and enables recording both baseline behavior and the behavioral test response over a prolonged period of time. We demonstrate that the light spot test induces a behavioral response in C57BL/6J mice. This behavior reverts to baseline when the aversive stimulus is switched off, and is blunted by treatment with the anxiolytic drug Diazepam, demonstrating predictive validity of the assay, and indicating that the observed behavioral response has a significant anxiety component. Also, we investigated the effectiveness of the light spot test as part of sequential testing for different behavioral aspects in the home-cage. Two learning tests, administered prior to the light spot test, affected the light spot test parameters. The light spot test is a novel, automated assay for anxiety-related high-throughput testing of mice in an automated home-cage environment, allowing for both comprehensive behavioral phenotyping of mice, and rapid screening of pharmacological compounds.

Genetic Mapping in Mice Reveals the Involvement of Pcdh9 in Long-Term Social and Object Recognition and Sensorimotor Development.

BACKGROUND: Quantitative genetic analysis of basic mouse behaviors is a powerful tool to identify novel genetic phenotypes contributing to neurobehavioral disorders. Here, we analyzed genetic contributions to single-trial, long-term social and nonsocial recognition and subsequently studied the functional impact of an identified candidate gene on behavioral development. METHODS: Genetic mapping of single-trial social recognition was performed in chromosome substitution strains, a sophisticated tool for detecting quantitative trait loci (QTL) of complex traits. Follow-up occurred by generating and testing knockout (KO) mice of a selected QTL candidate gene. Functional characterization of these mice was performed through behavioral and neurological assessments across developmental stages and analyses of gene expression and brain morphology. RESULTS: Chromosome substitution strain 14 mapping studies revealed an overlapping QTL related to long-term social and object recognition harboring Pcdh9, a cell-adhesion gene previously associated with autism spectrum disorder. Specific long-term social and object recognition deficits were confirmed in homozygous (KO) Pcdh9-deficient mice, while heterozygous mice only showed long-term social recognition impairment. The recognition deficits in KO mice were not associated with alterations in perception, multi-trial discrimination learning, sociability, behavioral flexibility, or fear memory. Rather, KO mice showed additional impairments in sensorimotor development reflected by early touch-evoked biting, rotarod performance, and sensory gating deficits. This profile emerged with structural changes in deep layers of sensory cortices, where Pcdh9 is selectively expressed. CONCLUSIONS: This behavior-to-gene study implicates Pcdh9 in cognitive functions required for long-term social and nonsocial recognition. This role is supported by the involvement of Pcdh9 in sensory cortex development and sensorimotor phenotypes.

A 1-night operant learning task without food-restriction differentiates among mouse strains in an automated home-cage environment.

Individuals are able to change their behavior based on its consequences, a process involving instrumental learning. Studying instrumental learning in mice can provide new insights in this elementary aspect of cognition. Conventional appetitive operant learning tasks that facilitate the study of this form of learning in mice, as well as more complex operant paradigms, require labor-intensive handling and food deprivation to motivate the animals. Here, we describe a 1-night operant learning protocol that exploits the advantages of automated home-cage testing and circumvents the interfering effects of food restriction. The task builds on behavior that is part of the spontaneous exploratory repertoire during the days before the task. We compared the behavior of C57BL/6J, BALB/cJ and DBA/2J mice and found various differences in behavior during this task, but no differences in learning curves. BALB/cJ mice showed the largest instrumental learning response, providing a superior dynamic range and statistical power to study instrumental learning by using this protocol. Insights gained with this home-cage-based learning protocol without food restriction will be valuable for the development of other, more complex, cognitive tasks in automated home-cages.

Tomosyn-2 is required for normal motor performance in mice and sustains neurotransmission at motor endplates.

Tomosyn-1 (STXBP5) is a soluble NSF attachment protein receptor complex-binding protein that inhibits vesicle fusion, but the role of tomosyn-2 (STXBP5L) in the mammalian nervous system is still unclear. Here we generated tomosyn-2 null (Tom2(KO/KO)) mice, which showed impaired motor performance. This was accompanied by synaptic changes at the neuromuscular junction, including enhanced spontaneous acetylcholine release frequency and faster depression of muscle motor endplate potentials during repetitive stimulation. The postsynaptic geometric arrangement and function of acetylcholine receptors were normal. We conclude that tomosyn-2 supports motor performance by regulation of transmitter release willingness to sustain synaptic strength during high-frequency transmission, which makes this gene a candidate for involvement in neuromuscular disorders.

Sheltering behavior and locomotor activity in 11 genetically diverse common inbred mouse strains using home-cage monitoring.

Functional genetic analyses in mice rely on efficient and in-depth characterization of the behavioral spectrum. Automated home-cage observation can provide a systematic and efficient screening method to detect unexplored, novel behavioral phenotypes. Here, we analyzed high-throughput automated home-cage data using existing and novel concepts, to detect a plethora of genetic differences in spontaneous behavior in a panel of commonly used inbred strains (129S1/SvImJ, A/J, C3H/HeJ, C57BL/6J, BALB/cJ, DBA/2J, NOD/LtJ, FVB/NJ, WSB/EiJ, PWK/PhJ and CAST/EiJ). Continuous video-tracking observations of sheltering behavior and locomotor activity were segmented into distinguishable behavioral elements, and studied at different time scales, yielding a set of 115 behavioral parameters of which 105 showed highly significant strain differences. This set of 115 parameters was highly dimensional; principal component analysis identified 26 orthogonal components with eigenvalues above one. Especially novel parameters of sheltering behavior and parameters describing aspects of motion of the mouse in the home-cage showed high genetic effect sizes. Multi-day habituation curves and patterns of behavior surrounding dark/light phase transitions showed striking strain differences, albeit with lower genetic effect sizes. This spontaneous home-cage behavior study demonstrates high dimensionality, with a strong genetic contribution to specific sets of behavioral measures. Importantly, spontaneous home-cage behavior analysis detects genetic effects that cannot be studied in conventional behavioral tests, showing that the inclusion of a few days of undisturbed, labor extensive home-cage assessment may greatly aid gene function analyses and drug target discovery.