The Therapeutic Potential of 2-{[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)piperazin-1-yl]alkyl}-1H-benzo[d]imidazoles as Ligands for Alpha1-Adrenergic Receptor - Comparative In Silico and In Vitro Study.

Adrenergic receptors are among the most studied G protein-coupled receptors. Activation or blockade of these receptors is a major therapeutic approach for the treatment of numerous disorders such as cardiac hypertrophy, congestive heart failure, hypertension, angina pectoris, cardiac arrhythmias, depression, benign prostate hyperplasia, anaphylaxis, asthma, and hyperthyroidism. Among all nine cloned adrenoceptor subtypes and the subsequent development of animal models, a significant target for various neurological conditions treatment is alpha1-adrenergic receptors. 2-{[4-(2-Methoxyphenyl)piperazin-1-yl]alkyl}-1H-benzo[d]imidazoles, their 5 substituted derivatives, and structurally similar, arylpiperazine based alpha1-adrenergic receptors antagonists (trazodone, naftopidil, and urapidil) have been subjects of comparative analysis. Most of the novel compounds showed alpha1-adrenergic affinity in the range from 22 nM to 250 nM. The in silico docking and molecular dynamics simulations, binding data together with absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) calculations identified the promising lead compounds. The results brought out the conclusions which allowed us to propose a rationale for the activity of these molecules and to highlight six compounds (2-5, 8, and 12) that exhibited an acceptable pharmacokinetic profile to the advanced investigation as the potential alpha1-adrenergic receptor antagonists.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of fluorinated indanone derivatives as potential positron emission tomography agents for the imaging of monoamine oxidase B in the brain.

Monoamine oxidases (MAOs) play a key role in the metabolism of major monoamine neurotransmitters. In particular, the upregulation of MAO-B in Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and cancer augmented the development of selective MAO-B inhibitors for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, such as the anti-parkinsonian MAO-B irreversible binder l-deprenyl (Selegiline®). Herein we report on the synthesis of novel fluorinated indanone derivatives for PET imaging of MAO-B in the brain. Out of our series, the derivatives 6, 8, 9 and 13 are amongst the most affine and selective ligands for MAO-B reported so far. For the derivative 6-((3-fluorobenzyl)oxy)-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-1-one (6) exhibiting an outstanding affinity (KiMAO-B = 6 nM), an automated copper-mediated radiofluorination starting from the pinacol boronic ester 17 is described. An in vitro screening in different species revealed a MAO-B region-specific accumulation of [18F]6 in rats and piglets in comparison to L-[3H]deprenyl. The pre-clinical in vivo assessment of [18F]6 in mice demonstrated the potential of indanones to readily cross the blood-brain barrier. Nonetheless, parallel in vivo metabolism studies indicated the presence of blood-brain barrier metabolites, thus arguing for further structural modifications. With the matching analytical profiles of the radiometabolite analysis from the in vitro liver microsome studies and the in vivo evaluation, the structure's elucidation of the blood-brain barrier penetrant radiometabolites is possible and will serve as basis for the development of new indanone derivatives suitable for the PET imaging of MAO-B.

Newly Synthesized Fluorinated Cinnamylpiperazines Possessing Low In Vitro MAO-B Binding.

Herein, we report on the synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of ten novel fluorinated cinnamylpiperazines as potential monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) ligands. The designed derivatives consist of either cinnamyl or 2-fluorocinnamyl moieties connected to 2-fluoropyridylpiperazines. The three-step synthesis starting from commercially available piperazine afforded the final products in overall yields between 9% and 29%. An in vitro competitive binding assay using l-[3H]Deprenyl as radioligand was developed and the MAO-B binding affinities of the synthesized derivatives were assessed. Docking studies revealed that the compounds 8-17 were stabilized in both MAO-B entrance and substrate cavities, thus resembling the binding pose of l-Deprenyl. Although our results revealed that the novel fluorinated cinnamylpiperazines 8-17 do not possess sufficient MAO-B binding affinity to be eligible as positron emission tomography (PET) agents, the herein developed binding assay and the insights gained within our docking studies will certainly pave the way for further development of MAO-B ligands.

Modeling of Dopamine D2 Receptor - Overview of 35-Year Evolution.

Research on dopamine (DA) and its receptors, and in particular the D2 receptor subclass, has been an intriguing and fast developing scientific field in the past 35 years. Methods of medicinal chemistry, molecular and structural biology as well as computational chemistry were used in the studies of DA receptors (DRs). Early attempts to describe DRs were based on a small amount of experimental data available and produced crude models at best. Once crystal structures of bacteriorhodopsin, rhodopsine, various G-protein coupled receptors, and finally D3 DR receptor became available, better and more detailed D2 DR receptor models emerged. These models gave us an insight into the mechanism of ligand-receptor interactions, and paved the way for the synthesis of new dopaminergic compounds, both agonists and antagonists and possible drugs for the treatment of different imbalances of the dopaminergic system. This review covers the key discoveries on the path to the creation of the D2 DR receptor model.

Neuroprotective arylpiperazine dopaminergic/serotonergic ligands suppress experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in rats.

Arylpiperazine-based dopaminergic/serotonergic ligands exert neuroprotective activity. We examined the effect of arylpiperazine D2 /5-HT1A ligands, N-{4-[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl}-phenyl]-picolinamide (6a) and N-{3-[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl]-phenyl}-picolinamide (6b), in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model of neuroinflammation. Both compounds (10 mg/kg i.p.) reduced EAE clinical signs in spinal cord homogenate-immunized Dark Agouti rats. Compound 6b was more efficient in delaying the disease onset and reducing the maximal clinical score, which correlated with its higher affinity for D2 and 5-HT1A receptors. The protection was retained if treatment was limited to the effector (from day 8 onwards), but not the induction phase (day 0-7) of EAE. Compound 6b reduced CNS immune infiltration and expression of mRNA encoding the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor, IL-6, IL-1, and GM-CSF, TH 1 cytokine IFN-γ, TH 17 cytokine IL-17, as well as the signature transcription factors of TH 1 (T-bet) and TH 17 (RORγt) cells. Arylpiperazine treatment reduced apoptosis and increased the activation of anti-apoptotic mediators Akt and p70S6 kinase in the CNS of EAE animals. The in vitro treatment with 6b protected oligodendrocyte cell line OLN-93 and neuronal cell line PC12 from mitogen-activated normal T cells or myelin basic protein-activated encephalitogenic T cells. In conclusion, arylpiperazine dopaminergic/serotonergic ligands suppress EAE through a direct neuroprotective action and decrease in CNS inflammation. Arylpiperazine dopaminergic/serotonergic ligands reduce neurological symptoms of acute autoimmune encephalomyelitis in rats without affecting the activation of autoreactive immune response, through mechanisms involving a decrease in CNS immune infiltration, as well as direct protection of CNS from immune-mediated damage. These data indicate potential usefulness of arylpiperazine-based compounds in the treatment of neuroinflammatory disorders such as multiple sclerosis.

Exploration of N-arylpiperazine Binding Sites of D2 Dopaminergic Receptor.

The crystal structures of the D3 dopamine receptor and several other G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) were published in recent times. Those 3D structures are used by us and other scientists as a template for the homology modeling and ligand docking analysis of related GPCRs. Our main scientific interest lies in the field of pharmacologically active N-arylpiperazines that exhibit antipsychotic and/or antidepressant properties, and as such are dopaminergic and serotonergic receptor ligands. In this short review article we are presenting synthesis and biological data on the new N-arylpipereazine as well our results on molecular modeling of the interactions of those N-arylpiperazines with the model of D2 dopamine receptors. To obtain that model the crystal structure of the D3 dopamine receptor was used. Our results show that the N-arylpiperazines binding site consists of two pockets: one is the orthosteric binding site where the N-arylpiperazine part of the ligand is docked and the second is a non-canonical accessory binding site for N-arylpipereazine that is formed by a second extracellular loop (ecl2) of the receptor. Until now, the structure of this receptor region was unresolved in crystal structure analyses of the D3 dopamine receptor. To get a more complete picture of the ligand - receptor interaction, DFT quantum mechanical calculations on N-arylpiperazine were performed and the obtained models were used to examine those interactions.

Molecular modeling of 5HT2A receptor - arylpiperazine ligands interactions.

In this paper, we report the molecular modeling of the 5HT2A receptor and the molecular docking of arylpiperazine-like ligands. The focus of the research was on explaining the effects the ligand structure has on the binding properties of the 5HT2A receptor and on the key interactions between the ligands and the receptor-binding site. To see what the receptor­ligand interactions were, various substituents were introduced in one part of the ligand, keeping the rest unchanged. In this way, using a docking analysis on the proposed 5HT2A receptor model, we identified key receptor­ligand interactions and determined their properties. Those properties were correlated with experimentally determined binding affinities in order to determine the structure to activity relationship of the examined compounds.

N-{[2-(4-Phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl]-phenyl}-arylamides with dopamine D2 and 5-Hydroxytryptamine 5HT(1A) activity: synthesis, testing, and molecular modeling.

The ratio of affinities toward the dopamine D2 and the 5-hydroxytryptamine 5-HT(1A) receptors is one of the important parameters that determine the efficiency of antipsychotic drugs. Here, we present the synthesis of ortho-, meta-, and para-N-{[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl]-phenyl}-arylamides and their structure-activity relationship studies on dopamine D2 and 5-hydroxytryptamine 5-HT(1A) receptors. It was shown that the biological activity of the described ligands strongly depends on their topology as well as on the nature of the heteroaryl group in the head of the molecules. Docking simulations together with conformational analysis revealed a rational explanation for the ligands' behavior. The molecular model of receptor-ligand interactions described herein provided us with a tool for the rational design of new compounds with a favorable D2/5-HT(1A) profile.

Arylpiperazine-mediated activation of Akt protects SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells from 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptotic and autophagic death.

We investigated the ability of 19 recently synthesized arylpiperazine compounds to protect human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells from the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). The compound with the most potent neuroprotective action was N-{3-[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl]-phenyl}-picolinamide (6b), which reduced 6-OHDA-induced apoptotic death through stabilization of mitochondrial membrane and subsequent prevention of superoxide production, caspase activation and DNA fragmentation. 6-OHDA-triggered autophagic response was also reduced by 6b, which prevented inactivation of the main autophagy repressor mTOR, upregulation of proautophagic beclin-1, conversion of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3)-I to autophagosome-associated LC3-II, as well as intracytoplasmic acidification induced by 6-OHDA. The inhibition of autophagy using LC3ß gene silencing or pharmacological autophagy blockers 3-methyladenine or bafilomycin A1, mimicked the cytoprotective effect of 6b. While the treatment with 6b had no effect on the phosphorylation of proapoptotic MAP kinases ERK and JNK, it markedly increased the phosphorylation of the prosurvival kinase Akt in 6-OHDA-treated cells. Akt inhibitor DEBC or RNA interference-mediated Akt silencing reduced the ability of 6b to block 6-OHDA-triggered apoptotic and autophagic responses, thus confirming their dependency on Akt activation. The cytoprotective effect of 6b was also observed in 6-OHDA-treated neuronal PC12 cells, but not in SH-SY5Y or PC12 cells exposed to 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium, indicating that the observed neuroprotection was dependent on the cytotoxic stimulus. Because of the ability to prevent 6-OHDA induced apoptotic/autophagic cell death through activation of Akt, the investigated arylpiperazines could be potential candidates for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Determination of key receptor-ligand interactions of dopaminergic arylpiperazines and the dopamine D2 receptor homology model.

Interest in structure-based G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) ligand discovery is huge, given that almost 30 % of all approved drugs belong to this category of active compounds. The GPCR family includes the dopamine receptor subtype D2 (D2DR), but unfortunately--as is true of most GPCRs--no experimental structures are available for these receptors. In this publication, we present the molecular model of D2DR based on the previously published crystal structure of the dopamine D3 receptor (D3DR). A molecular modeling study using homology modeling and docking simulation provided a rational explanation for the behavior of the arylpiperazine ligand. The observed binding modes and receptor-ligand interactions provided us with fresh clues about how to optimize selectivity for D2DR receptors.

Interactions of N-{[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl]-phenyl}-2-aryl-2-yl-acetamides and 1-{[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl]-phenyl}-3-aryl-2-yl-ureas with dopamine D2 and 5-hydroxytryptamine 5HT(1A) receptors.

It is suggested that the ratio of dopamine D(2) to 5-hydroxytryptamine 5-HT(1A) activity is an important parameter that determines the efficiency of antipsychotic drugs. Here we present the synthesis of N-{[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl]-phenyl}-2-aryl-2-yl-acetamides and 1-{[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)-ethyl]-phenyl}-3-aryl-2-yl-ureas and their structure-activity relationship studies on dopamine D(2) and 5-hydrohytryptamine 5-HT(1A) receptors. It was shown that ligand selectivity and affinity strongly depends on their topology and the presence of a pyridyl group in the head of molecules. Molecular modeling studies using homology modeling and docking simulation revealed a rational explanation for the ligand behavior. The observed binding modes and receptor-ligand interactions provided us with a clue for optimizing the optimal selectivity towards 5-HT(1A) receptors.

Arylpiperazine dopamineric ligands protect neuroblastoma cells from nitric oxide (NO)-induced mitochondrial damage and apoptosis.

The protective ability of novel arylpiperazine-based dopaminergic ligands against nitric oxide (NO)-mediated neurotoxicity is investigated. The most potent neuroprotective arylpiperazine identified during the study was N-{4-[2-(4-phenyl-piperazin-1-yl)ethyl]-phenyl}picolinamide, which protected SH-SY5Y human neuron-like cells from the proapoptotic effect of NO donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP) by decreasing oxidative stress, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, caspase activation and subsequent phosphatydilserine externalization/DNA fragmentation. The protective effect was associated with the inhibition of proapoptotic (JNK, ERK, AMPK) and activation of antiapoptotic (Akt) signaling pathways, in the absence of interference with intracellular NO accumulation. The neuroprotective action of arylpiperazines was shown to be independent of dopamine receptor binding, as it was not affected by the high-affinity D1/D2 receptor blocker butaclamol. These results reported support the further study of arylpiperazines as potential neuroprotective agents.

Pharmacological evaluation of halogenated and non-halogenated arylpiperazin-1-yl-ethyl-benzimidazoles as D(2) and 5-HT(2A) receptor ligands.

Five groups of previously synthesized and initially screened non-substituted and 4-halogenated arylpiperazin-1-yl-ethyl-benzimidazoles were estimated for their in-vitro binding affinities at the rat D(2) , 5-HT(2A) , and α(1) -adrenergic receptors. Among all these compounds, 2-methoxyphenyl and 2-chlorophenyl piperazines demonstrate the highest affinities for the tested receptors. The effects of 4-halogenation of benzimidazoles reveal that substitution with bromine may greatly increase the affinity of the compounds for the studied receptors, while the effect of substitution with chlorine is less remarkable. Most of the tested components show 5-HT(2A)/D(2) pK(i) binding ratios slightly above or less than 1, while only 4-chloro-6-(2-{4-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]piperazin-1-yl}ethyl)-1H-benzimidazole expresses an appropriate higher binding ratio (1.14), which was indicated for atypical neuroleptics. This compound exhibits a non-cataleptic action in rats and prevents d-amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion in mice, which suggest its atypical antipsychotic potency.

Antiglioma action of xanthones from Gentiana kochiana: Mechanistic and structure-activity requirements.

The present study identifies xanthones gentiakochianin and gentiacaulein as the active principles responsible for the in vitro antiglioma action of ether and methanolic extracts of the plant Gentiana kochiana. Gentiakochianin and gentiacaulein induced cell cycle arrest in G(2)/M and G(0)/G(1) phases, respectively, in both C6 rat glioma and U251 human glioma cell lines. The more efficient antiproliferative action of gentiakochianin was associated with its ability to induce microtubule stabilization in a cell-free assay. Both the xanthones reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and increased the production of reactive oxygen species in glioma cells, but only the effects of gentiakochianin were pronounced enough to cause caspase activation and subsequent apoptotic cell death. The assessment of structure-activity relationship in a series of structurally related xanthones from G. kochiana and Gentianella austriaca revealed dihydroxylation at positions 7, 8 of the xanthonic nucleus as the key structural feature responsible for the ability of gentiakochianin to induce microtubule-associated G(2)/M cell block and apoptotic cell death in glioma cells.

Synthesis, binding properties and receptor docking of 4-halo-6-[2-(4-arylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl]-1H-benzimidazoles, mixed ligands of D2 and 5-HT1A receptors.

In this publication we are describing synthesis, binding properties, and receptor docking of 4-halo-6-[2-(4-arylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl]-1H-benzimidazoles, a new compounds with potential antipsychotics properties. Affinity towards the dopamine D(1)-like and D(2)-like, and serotonin 5-HT(1A) receptors was evaluated using the radioligand binding assays. All compounds tested had affinity for the D(2)-like and 5-HT(1A) receptors, but were inactive towards the D(1)-like receptor. Halogenated 6-[2-(4-arylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl]-1H-benzimidazoles showed higher affinity compared to their nonhalogenated congeners. In silico docking analysis of selected ligands was performed in order to explain the results of binding assays. Our analysis suggests that stabilizing interactions between the halogen atom at the benzimidazole ring and the Ser-122 of the D(2)-like and Trp-358 of the 5-HT(1A) receptor. Energy contributions for these interactions were calculated using the ab initio method.

Two new phenylpiperazines with atypical antipsychotic potential.

Two new series of substituted arylpiperazines with heterocyclic 3-propoxy-benzimidazole or 3-propoxy-benzimidazole-2-thione groups were synthesized and their in vitro binding affinities for the D(2), 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A), and alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors determined. Among them, only two compounds with phenyl aryl-constituent (8a and 9a) showed 5-HT(2A)/D(2) pK(i) binding ratios proposed for atypical neuroleptics. As to their behavioral screening on rodents, both compounds exhibited a non-cataleptic action in rats and antagonized D-amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion in mice, suggesting their possible atypical antipsychotic potency.

1-cinnamyl-4-(2-methoxyphenyl)piperazines: synthesis, binding properties, and docking to dopamine (D(2)) and serotonin (5-HT(1A)) receptors.

Clinical properties of atypical antipsychotics are based on their interaction with D(2) dopamine receptor and serotonin 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A) receptors. As a part of our research program on new antipsychotics, we synthesized various derivatives of 1-cinnamyl-4-(2-methoxyphenyl)piperazines, and evaluated their affinities for D(2), 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A), and adrenergic (alpha(1)) receptors using radioligand-binding assays. In addition, we performed docking analysis using models for the D(2) and 5-HT(1A) receptors. All compounds exhibited low to moderate affinity to 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(2A) receptors, high affinity to the D(2 )receptor and large variability in affinities for the alpha(1) receptor. Docking analysis indicated that the binding to D(2) and 5-HT(1A) receptors is based on (i) interaction between protonated N1 of the piperazine ring and various aspartate residues, (ii) hydrogen bonds between various moieties of the ligand and the residues of threonine, serine, histidine or tryptophane, and (iii) edge-to-face interactions of the aromatic ring of the arylpiperazine moiety with phenylalanine or tyrosine residues. Docking data for the D(2) receptor can account for the binding properties obtained in binding assays, suggesting that the model is reliable and robust. However, docking data for the 5-HT(1A) receptor cannot account for actual binding properties, suggesting that further refinement of the model is required.

Synthesis, dopamine D2 receptor binding studies and docking analysis of 5-[3-(4-arylpiperazin-1-yl)propyl]-1H-benzimidazole, 5-[2-(4-arylpiperazin-1-yl)ethoxy]-1H-benzimidazole and their analogs.

5-[3-(4-Arylpiperazin-1-yl)propyl]-1H-benzimidazoles and 5-[2-(4-arylpiperazin-1-yl)ethoxy]-1H-benzimidazoles were synthesized and their affinity for the D1, D2 and 5-HT1A receptors examined. They expressed a rather high affinity for the D2 dopamine receptor. The main features of ligand-D2 receptor interactions revealed by docking analyses were: salt bridge between piperazine ring protonated N1 and Asp 86, hydrogen bonds of ligand bezimidazole part with Ser 141, Ser 122 and His 189, edge-to-face interactions of arylpiperazine aromatic ring with Phe 178, Tyr 216 and Trp 182 and hydrogen bond between ethereal oxygen in ethylenoxy ligands and hydrogen of Phe 185 or Trp 115. The most active 5-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-piperazin-1-yl]ethoxy]-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazole-2-thione (27) has a maximal number of attractive interactions. A satisfactory correlation between docking of the compounds into the D2 receptor and competition binding results was observed.

Interaction of arylpiperazines with the dopamine receptor D2 binding site.

The docking of several 1-benzyl-4-arylpiperazines to the dopamine receptor (DAR) D2 was examined. The results demonstrated that the interaction of protonated N1 of the piperazine ring with Asp 86 (III.32) and edge-to-face interactions of the aromatic ring of the arylpiperazine part of the ligand with Phe 178 (VI.44), Trp 182 (VI.48) and Tyr 216 (VII.58) of the receptor, represent the major stabilizing forces. Besides, the hydrogen bond acceptor group in position 2 of the phenylpiperazine aromatic ring could build one more hydrogen bond with Trp 182 (VI.48). Bulky substituents in position 4 were not tolerated due to the unfavorable sterical interaction with Phe 178 (VI.44). Substituents in position 2 and 3 were found to be sterically well tolerated. Introduction of electron attractive -NO2 group in position 3 of aryipiperazines decreased, while electron donors (-OMe) and the second aromatic ring (naphthyl) increased the binding affinity comparing to that of the phenylpiperazine 1. This can be explained in terms of favoured edge-to-face interactions in ligands with a high negative electrostatic surface potential (ESP) in the centre of aromatic residue of arylpiperazines. Thus, besides the salt bridges and hydrogen bonds, edge-to-face interactions significantly contribute to arylpiperazine ligands to form complexes with the DAR D2. Phe 178 (VI.44), Trp 182 (VI.48) and Tyr 216 (VII.58) can be considered as a part of the ancillary DAR D2 pocket preserved in most G protein-coupled receptors of the A class and obviously, the arylpiperazine structural motif represents one of the privileged structures that bind to this pocket.

Pharmacological evaluation of selected arylpiperazines with atypical antipsychotic potential.

Six active compounds, among previously synthesized and screened arylpiperazines, were selected and evaluated for the binding affinity to rat dopamine, serotonin and alpha(1) receptors. Two compounds with benztriazole group had a 5-HT(2A)/D(2) binding ratio characteristic for atypical neuroleptics (>1, pK(i) values). Compound 2, 5-[2-[4-(2,3-dimethyl-phenyl)-piperazin-1-yl]ethyl]1H-benzotriazole, expressed clozapine-like in vitro binding profile at D(2), 5-HT(2A) and alpha 1 receptors and a higher affinity for 5-HT(1A) receptors than clozapine. Also, it exhibited the noncataleptic behavioural pattern of atypical antipsychotics and antagonized d-amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion in rats.