Interactions between corticotropin releasing factor signaling and prophylactic antibiotics on measures of intestinal function in weaned and transported pigs.

The study objective was to evaluate the interaction between corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) receptor signaling and prophylactic antibiotic administration on intestinal physiology in newly weaned and transported pigs. Pigs (n = 56; 5.70 ± 1.05 kg) were weaned (20.49 ± 0.64 d), a blood sample was taken, and then pigs were given an intraperitoneal injection of saline (SAL; n = 28 pigs) or a CRF receptor antagonist (CRFA; n = 28 pigs; 30 µg/kg body weight; Astressin B), and then were transported in a livestock trailer for 12 h and 49 min. A second and third intraperitoneal injection was given at 4 h 42 min and 11 h 36 min into the transport process, respectively. Following transport, 4 SAL and 4 CRFA pigs were blood sampled and euthanized. The remaining 48 pigs were individually housed and given dietary antibiotics [AB; n = 12 SAL and 12 CRFA pigs; chlortetracycline (441 ppm) + tiamulin (38.6 ppm)] or no dietary antibiotics (NAB; n = 12 SAL and 12 CRFA pigs) for 14 d post-transport. Blood was collected at 12 h and on d 3, 7, and 14, and then pigs were euthanized on d 7 (n = 24) and d 14 (n = 24) post-weaning and transport. Circulating cortisol was reduced (p = 0.05) in CRFA pigs when compared to SAL pigs post-weaning and transport. On d 7, jejunal villus height and crypt depth was greater overall (p < 0.05) in AB-fed pigs versus NAB-fed pigs. On d 14, ileal crypt depth was reduced (p = 0.02) in CRFA pigs when compared to SAL pigs. Jejunal CRF mRNA abundance tended to be reduced (p = 0.09) on d 7 in CRFA pigs versus SAL pigs. On d 14, jejunal tumor necrosis factor-alpha was reduced (p = 0.01) in AB-fed pigs versus NAB-fed pigs. On d 7, change in glucose short-circuit current tended to be increased (p = 0.07) in CRFA pigs fed the AB diet when compared to CRFA pigs fed the NAB diet. In conclusion, CRFA pigs and pigs fed AB had some similar biological intestinal function measures post-weaning and transport.

Physiological effects of in ovo delivery of bioactive substances in broiler chickens.

The poultry industry has improved genetics, nutrition, and management practices, resulting in fast-growing chickens; however, disturbances during embryonic development may affect the entire production cycle and cause irreversible losses to broiler chicken producers. The most crucial time in the chicks' development appears to be the perinatal period, which encompasses the last few days of pre-hatch and the first few days of post-hatch. During this critical period, intestinal development occurs rapidly, and the chicks undergo a metabolic and physiological shift from the utilization of egg nutrients to exogenous feed. However, the nutrient reserve of the egg yolk may not be enough to sustain the late stage of embryonic development and provide energy for the hatching process. In addition, modern hatchery practices cause a delay in access to feed immediately post-hatch, and this can potentially affect the intestinal microbiome, health, development, and growth of the chickens. Development of the in ovo technology allowing for the delivery of bioactive substances into chicken embryos during their development represents a way to accommodate the perinatal period, late embryo development, and post-hatch growth. Many bioactive substances have been delivered through the in ovo technology, including carbohydrates, amino acids, hormones, prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics, antibodies, immunostimulants, minerals, and microorganisms with a variety of physiological effects. In this review, we focused on the physiological effects of the in ovo delivery of these substances, including their effects on embryo development, gastrointestinal tract function and health, nutrient digestion, immune system development and function, bone development, overall growth performance, muscle development and meat quality, gastrointestinal tract microbiota development, heat stress response, pathogens exclusion, and birds metabolism, as well as transcriptome and proteome. We believe that this method is widely underestimated and underused by the poultry industry.

The Supplementation of FloraMax-B11 Did Not Affect the Bile Acid Neosynthesis and the Enterohepatic Circulation in Broiler Chickens.

Most probiotics possess bile salt hydrolase enzymes and may increase bile acid excretion and negatively affect fat digestion and absorption. Therefore, the study objective was to determine the time course effects of a commercial probiotic (P) FloraMax-B11 (FM) supplementation on bile acid neosynthesis and enterohepatic circulation in broiler chickens. Fertile Ross 708 eggs were incubated under standard commercial conditions. At hatch, chicks (n = 550) were randomly assigned to 5 treatment groups (n = 5 replicates per treatment group) with 22 birds per pen. The 5 treatment groups consisted of: control group (C, normal water from hatch to 35 days of age without supplements); P3, water supplemented with FM for the first 3 days post-hatch followed by normal water until day 35; P10, water supplemented with FM for the first 10 days post-hatch followed by normal water until day 35; P35, water supplemented with FM from hatch to day 35; and AGP, water supplemented with antibiotic growth promoter (AGP) from hatch until day 35. Ileum, liver, and plasma were collected at hatch, days 3, 10, 21, and 35 post-hatch. The relative mRNA expression of genes involved in bile acid synthesis (CYP7A1, CYP8B1, FXR, FGFR4, and FGF19) and transport (ASBT, I-BABP, OSTα, OSTß, and BSEP) as well as ileal deoxycholic acid and plasma cholic acid were determined. There was no FM and AGP interaction for any of the response criteria. No FM or AGP effects were observed (p > 0.05) for any genes, except FGF19, which expression was increased (p < 0.0001) in AGP compared to P35. No FM or AGP effects were observed (p > 0.05) for levels of deoxycholic and cholic acids. However, all the genes, deoxycholic acid, and plasma cholic acid were affected by age (p < 0.0001). In general, the data indicate that FM did not negatively impact bile acid metabolism and enterohepatic circulation, which appeared to be age dependent. However, more research should be conducted to confirm these results and investigate the effects of FM on bile acid metabolism, fat digestion, and intestinal microbiota in broiler chickens.

Delay of Feed Post-Hatch Causes Changes in Expression of Immune-Related Genes and Their Correlation with Components of Gut Microbiota, but Does Not Affect Protein Expression.

Because the delay of feed post-hatch (PH) has been associated with negative growth parameters, the aim of the current study was to determine the effect of delayed access to feed in broiler chicks on the expression of immune-related genes and select proteins. In addition, an analysis of the correlation between gene expression and components of the gut microbiota was carried out. Ross 708 eggs were incubated and hatched, and hatchlings were divided into FED and NONFED groups. The NONFED birds did not have access to feed until 48 h PH, while FED birds were given feed immediately PH. The ileum from both groups (n = 6 per group) was sampled at embryonic day 19 (e19) and day 0 (wet chicks), and 4, 24, 48, 72, 96, 144, 192, 240, 288, and 336 h PH. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was carried out to measure the expression of avian interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, transforming growth factor (TGF-ß), toll-like receptor (TLR)2, TLR4, interferon (IFN)-ß, IFN-γ, and avian ß-defensins (AvBD) I, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. Protein expression of IL-10, IL-1ß, IL-8, and IL-18 were measured using ELISAs. A correlation analysis was carried out to determine whether any significant association existed between immune gene expression and components of the ileal luminal and mucosal microbiota. Expression of several immune-related genes (TGF-ß, TLR4, IFN-γ, IL-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, and AvBDs 8 and 9) were significantly affected by the interaction between feed status and age. The effects were transient and occurred between 48 and 96 h PH. The rest of the genes and four proteins were significantly affected by age, with a decrease in expression noted over time. Correlation analysis indicated that stronger correlations exist among gene expression and microbiota in NONFED birds. The data presented here indicates that delay in feed PH can affect genes encoding components of the immune system. Additionally, the correlation analysis between immune gene expression and microbiota components indicates that a delay in feed has a significant effect on the interaction between the immune system and the microbiota.

Characterizing the postnatal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response of in utero heat stressed pigs at 10 and 15 weeks of age.

In utero heat stress alters postnatal physiological and behavioral stress responses in pigs. However, the mechanisms underlying these alterations have not been determined. The study objective was to characterize the postnatal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response of in utero heat-stressed pigs. Pigs were subjected to a dexamethasone suppression test followed by a corticotrophin releasing hormone challenge at 10 and 15 weeks of age. Following the challenge, hypothalamic, pituitary, and adrenal tissues were collected from all pigs for mRNA abundance analyses. At 10 weeks of age, in utero heat-stressed pigs had a reduced (P < 0.05) cortisol response to the corticotrophin releasing hormone challenge versus controls. Additionally, the cortisol response tended to be greater overall (P < 0.10) in 15 versus 10-week-old pigs in response to the dexamethasone suppression test. The cortisol response tended to be reduced overall (P < 0.10) in 15 versus 10-week-old pigs in response to the corticotrophin releasing hormone challenge. Hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone mRNA abundance tended to be greater (P < 0.10) in in utero heat-stressed versus control pigs at 15-weeks of age. In summary, in utero heat stress altered some aspects of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis related to corticotropin releasing hormone signaling, and age influenced this response.

Replacing dietary antibiotics with 0.20% l-glutamine in swine nursery diets: impact on intestinal physiology and the microbiome following weaning and transport.

Previous research demonstrates that supplementing 0.20% l-glutamine (GLN) in the diets of newly weaned and transported pigs improves growth rate to a similar extent as providing dietary antibiotics (AB). However, research comparing the effects of GLN vs. AB on intestinal physiology and the microbiome is limited. Therefore, the study objective was to compare the effects of supplementing nursery diets with GLN, AB, or no dietary antibiotics (NA) on intestinal physiology and the microbiome of pigs in a production environment following weaning and transport. Mixed-sex piglets (N = 480; 5.62 ± 0.06 kg body weight [BW]) were weaned (18.4 ± 0.2 d of age) and transported for 12 h in central Indiana, for two replicates, during the summer of 2016 and the spring of 2017. Pens were blocked by BW and allotted to one of the three dietary treatments (n = 10 pens/dietary treatment/replicate [8 pigs/pen]): AB (chlortetracycline [441 ppm] + tiamulin [38.6 ppm]), GLN (0.20% as-fed), or NA fed for 14 d. From day 14 to 34, pigs were fed common AB-free diets in two phases. On day 33, villus height:crypt depth tended to be increased (P = 0.07; 7.0%) in GLN and AB pigs vs. NA pigs. On day 33, glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2) mRNA abundance was decreased (P = 0.01; 50.3%) in GLN and NA pigs vs. AB pigs. Crypt depth was increased overall on day 33 (P = 0.01; 16.2%) during the spring replicate compared with the summer replicate. Villus height:crypt depth was reduced (P = 0.01; 9.6%) during the spring replicate compared with the summer replicate on day 33. On day 13, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and occludin mRNA abundance was increased (P ≤ 0.04; 45.9% and 106.5%, respectively) and zonula occludens-1 mRNA abundance tended to be greater (P = 0.10; 19.2%) in the spring replicate compared with the summer replicate. In addition, AB pigs had increased (P = 0.01; 101.3%) GLP-2 mRNA abundance compared with GLN and NA pigs. Microbiome analysis indicated that on day 13, dietary treatment altered the microbiota community structure (P = 0.03). Specifically, the AB pigs tended to be distinct from both the NA and GLN pigs (P = 0.08), and Lactobacillus was increased nearly 2-fold in AB compared with NA pigs (q = 0.04) and GLN pigs (q = 0.22). In conclusion, GLN supplementation tended to improve some morphological markers of intestinal health similarly to AB pigs, while the microbiome composition in GLN pigs was more similar to NA pigs than AB pigs.

Effects of Feed Removal during Acute Heat Stress on the Cytokine Response and Short-Term Growth Performance in Finishing Pigs.

The study objective was to evaluate the effects of feed removal during acute heat stress (HS) on the cytokine response and its short-term effect on growth performance in finishing pigs. Thirty-two pigs (93.29 ± 3.14 kg initial body weight; 50% barrows and 50% gilts) were subjected to thermoneutral (TN; 23.47 ± 0.10 °C; n = 16 pigs) or HS (cycling of 25 to 36 °C; n = 16 pigs) conditions for 24 h. Within each temperature treatment, 50% of the pigs were provided with feed (AF; n = 8 pigs/temperature treatment) and 50% of the pigs had no feed access (NF; n = 8 pigs/temperature treatment). Following the 24 h temperature and feeding treatment (TF) period, all pigs had ad libitum access to feed and water and were maintained under TN conditions for 6 d. During the first 12 h of the TF period, gastrointestinal (TGI) and skin (Tsk) temperatures were recorded every 30 min. Serum cytokines were determined at 0, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h during the TF period and on Days 3 and 6 of the post-TF period. Average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake were measured on Days 1, 3, and 6 of the post-TF period. Behavioral data were collected from Days 1 to 6 of the post-TF period. Heat stress increased (p < 0.02) the TGI and Tsk. During the post-TF period, interleukin-1α was greater (p < 0.01) in HS + NF compared to HS + AF and TN + NF pigs. From Days 1 to 2 of the post-TF period, the ADG was reduced (p < 0.01) in TN + AF compared to HS + AF, HS + NF, and TN + NF pigs. In conclusion, feed removal during an acute HS challenge did not reduce the cytokine response or improve short-term growth performance in finishing pigs.

In utero heat stress alters the postnatal innate immune response of pigs.

The effects of in utero heat stress (IUHS) range from decreased growth performance to altered behavior, but the long-term impact of IUHS on postnatal innate immune function in pigs is unknown. Therefore, the study objective was to determine the effects of early gestation IUHS on the immune, metabolic, and stress response of pigs subjected to an 8 hr lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge during postnatal life. Twenty-four pregnant gilts were exposed to thermoneutral (TN; n = 12; 17.5 ± 2.1 °C) or heat stress (HS; n = 12; cyclic 26 to 36 °C) conditions from days 6 to 59 of gestation, and then TN conditions (20.9 ± 2.3 °C) from day 60 of gestation to farrowing. At 12 wk of age, 16 IUHS and 16 in utero thermoneutral (IUTN) pigs were selected, balanced by sex and given an intravenous injection of LPS (2 µg/kg BW mixed with sterile saline [SAL] and injected at 2 µL/kg BW) or SAL (2 µL/kg BW). Body temperature was monitored every 30 min, and blood was obtained at 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 hr following the LPS challenge. Blood samples were analyzed for glucose, insulin, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), cortisol, and cytokine concentrations. In addition, white blood cell counts were determined at 0 and 4 hr. Hour 0 data were used as covariates. Body temperature was increased (P < 0.01) in LPS (40.88 ± 0.08 °C) vs. SAL (39.83 ± 0.08 °C) pigs. Eosinophils tended to be decreased overall (P = 0.09; 43.9%) in IUHS vs. IUTN pigs. Glucose concentrations were reduced overall (P = 0.05; 5.9%) in IUHS vs. IUTN pigs. The NEFA concentrations tended to be greater (P = 0.07; 143.4%) in IUHS-LPS pigs compared with all other treatments, and IUTN-LPS pigs tended to have greater (127.4%) circulating NEFA concentrations compared with IUTN-SAL and IUHS-SAL pigs. Cortisol was increased (P = 0.04) in IUHS-LPS compared with IUTN-LPS pigs at 3 hr (21.5%) and 4 hr (64.3%). At 1 hr, tumor necrosis factor α was increased (P = 0.01; 115.1%) in IUHS-LPS compared with IUTN-LPS pigs. Overall, interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were greater (P < 0.04; 281.3% and 297.8%, respectively) in IUHS-LPS pigs compared with all other treatments, and IUTN-LPS pigs had increased IL-1ß and IL-6 concentrations compared with IUTN-SAL and IUHS-SAL pigs. In summary, IUHS altered the postnatal cytokine, metabolic, and physiological stress response of pigs during postnatal life, which may have negative implications toward the innate immune response of IUHS pigs to pathogens.

Effects of increasing dietary L-glutamine to replace antibiotics on pig health and performance following weaning and transport.

Supplementing nursery diets with 0.20% L-glutamine (GLN) may provide similar growth and health benefits as dietary antibiotics, but it was unknown if greater inclusion levels may provide additional benefits. Therefore, the study objective was to evaluate the impact of replacing dietary antibiotics with increasing GLN levels on growth performance, therapeutic antibiotic treatment rates, welfare measures, and production costs in pigs after weaning and transport. We hypothesized that withholding dietary antibiotics may negatively impact performance and increase therapeutic treatment rate, and that diet supplementation with 0.20% to 1.00% GLN may incrementally improve productivity and reduce therapeutic antibiotic treatment rates compared with dietary antibiotics. Mixed sex pigs (N = 308; 5.64 ± 0.06 kg body weight [BW]) were weaned (19.1 ± 0.2 d of age) and transported in central Indiana in 2017. Pigs were blocked by BW and allotted to one of seven dietary treatments (n = 8 pens/dietary treatment): dietary antibiotics (positive control [PC]; chlortetracycline [441 mg/kg] + tiamulin [38.6 mg/kg]), no antibiotics or added GLN (negative control [NC]), 0.20% GLN, 0.40% GLN, 0.60% GLN, 0.80% GLN, or 1.00% GLN fed for 14 d. From d 14 to 35, pigs were provided nonantibiotic common diets in two phases. Overall, average daily gain (ADG) was reduced (P = 0.01; 17.7%) from d 0 to 14 in NC, 0.20% GLN, 0.60% GLN, 0.80% GLN, and 1.00% GLN pigs compared with PC pigs, but no ADG differences were detected between 0.40% GLN pigs and PC pigs. Increasing GLN in the diet tended to increase ADG (linear; P = 0.10). Overall, d 35 BW was greater (P = 0.01) in 0.80% GLN and PC pigs compared with NC, 0.20% GLN, and 0.60% GLN pigs, and was greater for 0.40% GLN and 1.00% GLN pigs vs. 0.20% GLN pigs. However, no d 35 BW differences were detected (P > 0.05) between PC, 0.40% GLN, 0.80% GLN, and 1.00% GLN pigs. Increasing GLN in the diet tended to increase (linear; P = 0.08) d 35 BW. Overall, income over feed and therapeutic injectable antibiotics cost (IOFAC) for enteric and unthrifty challenges were greater (P = 0.02) in 0.80% GLN pigs compared with NC, 0.20% GLN, and 0.60% GLN pigs, but no IOFACs for enteric and unthrifty challenges differences were detected between 0.80% GLN pigs and 0.40% GLN, 1.00% GLN, and PC pigs. In conclusion, GLN supplemented pigs had improved performance after weaning and transport compared with the NC pigs with 0.40% GLN being the most effective level.

Replacing dietary antibiotics with 0.20% l-glutamine and synbiotics following weaning and transport in pigs.

Dietary antibiotic use has been limited in swine production due to concerns regarding antibiotic resistance. However, this may negatively impact the health, productivity, and welfare of pigs. Therefore, the study objective was to determine if combining dietary synbiotics and 0.20% l-glutamine would improve pig growth performance and intestinal health following weaning and transport when compared with traditionally used dietary antibiotics. Because previous research indicates that l-glutamine improves swine growth performance and synbiotics reduce enterogenic bacteria, it was hypothesized that supplementing diets with 0.20% l-glutamine (GLN) and synbiotics (SYN; 3 strains of Lactobacillus [1.2 × 10^9 cfu/g of strain/pig/d] + ß-glucan [0.01 g/pig/d] + fructooligosaccharide [0.01 g/pig/d]) would have an additive effect and improve pig performance and intestinal health over that of dietary antibiotics. Mixed-sex pigs (N = 226; 5.86 ± 0.11 kg body weight [BW]) were weaned (19.4 ± 0.2 d of age) and transported for 12 h in central Indiana. Pigs were blocked by BW and allotted to one of two dietary treatments (5 to 6 pigs per pen): antibiotics (positive control [PC]; chlortetracycline [441 ppm] + tiamulin [38.5 ppm]), no antibiotics (negative control [NC]), GLN, SYN, or the NC diet with both the GLN and SYN additives (GLN + SYN) fed for 14 d. From day 14 post-weaning to the end of the grow-finish period, all pigs were provided common antibiotic-free diets. Data were analyzed using PROC GLIMMIX and PROC MIXED in SAS 9.4. Overall, haptoglobin was greater (P = 0.03; 216%) in NC pigs compared with PC pigs. On day 13, GLN and PC pigs tended to have reduced (P = 0.07; 75.2% and 67.3%, respectively) haptoglobin compared with NC pigs. On day 34, the jejunal goblet cell count per villi and per millimeter tended to be greater (P < 0.08; 71.4% and 62.9%, respectively) in SYN pigs compared with all other dietary treatments. Overall, jejunal mucosa tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) gene expression tended to be greater (P = 0.09; 40.0%) in NC pigs compared with PC pigs on day 34. On day 34, jejunal mucosa TNFα gene expression tended to be greater (P = 0.09; 33.3%, 41.2%, and 60.0%, respectively) in GLN pigs compared with SYN, GLN + SYN, and PC pigs. Although it was determined that some metrics of pig health were improved by the addition of GLN and SYN (i.e., haptoglobin and goblet cell count), overall, there were very few differences detected between dietary treatments and this may be related to the stress load incurred by the pigs.

Evaluation and mitigation of the effects of in utero heat stress on piglet growth performance, postabsorptive metabolism, and stress response following weaning and transport.

In utero heat stress (IUHS) increases the energy requirements of pigs during postnatal life, and this may compound weaning and transport stress. The study objective was to evaluate and mitigate the negative effects of IUHS following weaning and transport through the provision of a nutrient-dense (ND) nursery diet formulated to meet the greater energy requirements of IUHS pigs during the first 14 d postweaning and transport. Twenty-four pregnant gilts were exposed to thermoneutral (TN; n = 12; 17.5 ± 2.1 °C) or heat stress (HS; n = 12; cycling 26 to 36 °C) conditions for the first half of gestation (day 6 to 59) and then TN conditions (20.9 ± 2.3 °C) until farrowing. Nine TN gilts and 12 HS gilts produced litters. At weaning (16.2 ± 0.4 d), mixed-sex piglets (N = 160; 4.78 ± 0.15 kg body weight [BW]) were transported (loading + transport + unloading) for 11 h 40 min. Following transport, piglets were blocked into pens (n = 4 pigs/pen) by in utero and dietary treatments: in utero thermoneutral (IUTN) + control (C) diet (n = 10 pens), IUTN + ND (n = 10 pens), IUHS + C (n = 10 pens), and IUHS + ND (n = 10 pens). Treatment diets were fed from day 1 to 14 postweaning and transport (period 1), and the C diet was fed to all pigs from day 14 to 35 postweaning and transport (period 2). Production measures were taken in 7 d intervals to calculate average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily net energy intake (ADEI), gain:feed, and gain:net energy intake. Blood samples were collected prior to transport, following transport, and on days 2, 7, 14, 28, and 35 postweaning and transport to analyze cortisol, glucose, insulin, and nonesterified fatty acids. Behavior was assessed through video-recording on days 3, 5, 8, 11, and 13 postweaning and transport. In period 1, ADG was reduced (P = 0.04; 20.0 g/d) in IUHS vs. IUTN pigs. Pigs fed ND diets had reduced ADFI (P = 0.02; 9.3%) compared with C diet-fed pigs during period 1, which resulted in similar ADEI (P = 0.23; 1,115 ± 35 kcal/d). During transport, cortisol was decreased (P = 0.03; 25.8%) in IUHS vs. IUTN pigs. On day 2, glucose was decreased (P = 0.01; 13.8%) in IUHS vs. IUTN pigs. No in utero treatment-related behavior differences were observed but lying was reduced (P = 0.03; 6.5%) and standing was increased (P = 0.04; 14.1%) in ND vs. C pigs overall. In summary, IUHS reduced growth performance in pigs following weaning and transport, and providing an ND diet did not rescue the lost performance.

Effects of feed removal on thermoregulation and intestinal morphology in pigs recovering from acute hyperthermia.

Feed consumption increases body temperature and may delay a return to euthermia and exacerbate intestinal injury following acute hyperthermia recovery in pigs. Therefore, the study objective was to evaluate the effects of feed removal on body temperature and intestinal morphology in pigs exposed to acute hyperthermia and then rapidly cooled. Twenty-four gilts (78.53 ± 5.46 kg) were exposed to thermoneutral (TN; n = 12 pigs; 21.21 ± 0.31 °C; 61.88 ± 6.93% RH) conditions for 6 h, or heat stress (HS; 38.51 ± 0.60 °C; 36.38 ± 3.40% RH) conditions for 3 h followed by a 3-h recovery period of rapid cooling (HSC;n = 12 pigs; TN conditions and cold water dousing). Within each recovery treatment, one-half of the pigs were provided feed ad libitum (AF; n = 6 pigs per recovery treatment) and one-half of the pigs were not provided feed (NF; n = 6 pigs per recovery treatment). Gastrointestinal (TGI), vaginal (TV), and skin (TSK) temperatures and respiration rate (RR) were recorded every 15 min. Pigs were video-recorded to assess feeding and drinking attempts. Immediately following the 6-h thermal stress period, pigs were euthanized, and intestinal samples were collected to assess morphology. During the HS period, Tv, TGI, TSK, and RR were increased (P < 0.01; 1.63, 2.05, 8.32 °C, and 88 breaths per min, respectively) in HSC vs. TN pigs, regardless of feeding treatment. Gastrointestinal temperature was greater (P = 0.03; 0.97 °C) in HSC + AF vs. HSC + NF pigs from 45 to 180 min of the recovery period. During the recovery period, feeding attempts were greater (P = 0.02; 195.38%) in AF vs. NF pigs. No drinking attempt differences were detected with any comparison (P > 0.05). A decrease (P < 0.01) in jejunum and ileum villus height (24.72% and 26.11%, respectively) and villus height-to-crypt depth ratio (24.03% and 25.29%, respectively) was observed in HSC vs. TN pigs, regardless of feeding treatment. Ileum goblet cells were reduced (P = 0.01; 37.87%) in HSC vs. TN pigs, regardless of feeding treatment. In summary, TGI decreased more rapidly following acute hyperthermia when the feed was removed, and this may have implications toward using feed removal as a strategy to promote acute hyperthermia recovery in pigs.

Time course determination of the effects of rapid and gradual cooling after acute hyperthermia on body temperature and intestinal integrity in pigs.

Rapid cooling after acute hyperthermia may cause a sustained increase in body temperature and exacerbate intestinal damage in pigs. Therefore, the study objective was to evaluate the temporal effects of rapid and gradual cooling on body temperature response and intestinal integrity after acute hyperthermia in pigs. In three repetitions, 54 pigs [83.3 ± 6.7 kg initial body weight (BW)], balanced by sex were exposed to thermoneutral conditions for 6 h (TN; n = 6 pigs/repetition; 21.1 ± 2.0°C), or heat stress conditions (HS; 39.3 ± 1.6°C) for 3 h, followed by a 3 h recovery period of gradual cooling [HSGC; n = 6 pigs/repetition; gradual decrease from HS to TN conditions] or rapid cooling [HSRC; n = 6 pigs/repetition; rapid TN exposure and cold water (4.0°C) dousing every 30 min for 1.5 h]. Feed was withheld throughout the entire 6 h period, but water was provided ad libitum. Gastrointestinal (TGI) and rectal (TR) temperatures were recorded every 15 min during the HS and recovery periods. Six pigs per repetition (n = 2/treatment) were euthanized and jejunal and ileal samples were collected for histology immediately after (d 0), 2 d after, and 4 d after the recovery period. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED in SAS 9.4. Overall, rapid cooling reduced TR and TGI (P < 0.01; 0.95°C and 0.74°C, respectively) compared to gradual cooling. Jejunal villus height was reduced overall (P = 0.02; 14.01%) in HSGC compared to HSRC and TN pigs. Jejunal villus height-to-crypt depth ratio was reduced overall (P = 0.05; 16.76%) in HSGC compared to TN pigs. Ileal villus height was reduced overall (P < 0.01; 16.95%) in HSGC compared to HSRC and TN pigs. No other intestinal morphology differences were detected. In summary, HSRC did not cause a sustained increase in body temperature and did not negatively impact biomarkers of intestinal integrity in pigs.

Replacing dietary antibiotics with 0.20% l-glutamine in swine nursery diets: impact on health and productivity of pigs following weaning and transport1,2,3.

Antibiotic use has been limited in U.S. swine production. Therefore, the objective was to determine whether supplementing l-glutamine at cost-effective levels can replace dietary antibiotics to improve piglet welfare and productivity following weaning and transport. Based on previous research, we hypothesized that withholding dietary antibiotics would negatively affect pigs while diet supplementation with 0.20% l-glutamine (GLN) would have similar effects on pig performance and health as antibiotics. Mixed sex piglets (N = 480; 5.62 ± 0.06 kg BW) were weaned (18.4 ± 0.2 d of age) and transported for 12 h in central Indiana, for 2 replicates, during the summer of 2016 and the spring of 2017. Pigs were blocked by BW and allotted to 1 of 3 dietary treatments (n = 10 pens/dietary treatment/replicate [8 pigs/pen]); antibiotics (A; chlortetracycline [441 ppm] + tiamulin [38.6 ppm]), no antibiotics (NA), or GLN fed for 14 d. On days 15 to 34, pigs were provided common antibiotic-free diets in 2 phases. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED in SAS 9.4. Day 14 BW and days 0 to 14 ADG were greater (P = 0.01) for A (5.6% and 18.5%, respectively) and GLN pigs (3.8% and 11.4%, respectively) compared with NA pigs, with no differences between A and GLN pigs. Days 0 to 14 ADFI increased for A (P < 0.04; 9.3%) compared with NA pigs; however, no differences were detected when comparing GLN with A and NA pigs. Once dietary treatments ceased, no differences (P > 0.05) in productivity between dietary treatments were detected. On day 13, plasma tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) was reduced (P = 0.02) in A (36.7 ± 6.9 pg/mL) and GLN pigs (40.9 ± 6.9 pg/mL) vs. NA pigs (63.2 ± 6.9 pg/mL). Aggressive behavior tended to be reduced overall (P = 0.09; 26.4%) in GLN compared with A pigs, but no differences were observed between A and GLN vs. NA pigs. Huddling, active, and eating/drinking behaviors were increased overall (P < 0.02; 179%, 37%, and 29%, respectively) in the spring replicate compared with the summer replicate. When hot carcass weight (HCW) was used as a covariate, loin depth and lean percentage were increased (P = 0.01; 4.0% and 1.1%, respectively) during the spring replicate compared with the summer replicate. In conclusion, GLN supplementation improved pig performance and health after weaning and transport similarly to A across replicates; however, the positive effects of A and GLN were diminished when dietary treatments ceased.

Effects of pen location on thermoregulation and growth performance in grow-finish pigs during late summer.

The effects of pen location on swine thermoregulation and growth performance were determined over 6 weeks during late summer. A total of 128 mixed sex pigs [Duroc × (Landrace × Yorkshire)] were randomly assigned to 16 pens in two grow-finish barns (n = 8 pens/barn; 57.43 ± 1.33 kg initial body weight (BW)). Pen locations were determined based on orientation to ventilation fans and air inlets. Internal pens (IP; n = 4/barn) were in direct line of sight between the fans and air inlets while peripheral pens (PP; n = 4/barn) were located 0.70 ± 0.29 m to either side of a fan. Two sentinel gilts per pen were selected and vaginal temperature (TV) was measured in 10-min intervals using TV data loggers. Additionally, trunk skin temperature (TS) was measured with an infrared camera and respiration rate (RR) was measured by counting flank movements of the sentinel gilts twice daily (0800 and 1500 hours). Pen airspeed was measured twice daily (0800 and 1500 hours) at pig level with an anemometer. Individual pen ambient temperature (TA) and relative humidity (RH) were recorded daily in 10-min intervals. Feed consumption and BW were determined every 2 weeks. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED in SAS 9.4. Although airspeed was reduced overall (P = 0.01; 11%) in PP compared with IP, no differences (P > 0.10) in TA (27.53 ± 1.73 °C) or RH (68.47 ± 5.92%) were detected. An overall increase (P ≤ 0.02) in TV (0.23 °C), minimum TV (0.18 °C), and maximum TV (0.29 °C) was detected in PP versus IP housed pigs. Similarly, from 0800 to 1900 hours and 2000 to 0700 hours, TV was greater overall (P ≤ 0.01; 0.22 and 0.25 °C, respectively) in PP compared with IP housed pigs. An overall decrease in TS (P = 0.04) was observed in PP (37.39 ± 0.14 °C) compared with IP (37.61 ± 0.14 °C) housed pigs. No RR differences (P > 0.10; 76 ± 4 breaths per minute) were detected with any comparison. While no average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) differences were detected (P > 0.10; 0.74 ± 0.03 kg/d and 2.26 ± 0.08 kg/d, respectively), gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) was decreased (P = 0.02; 6%) in PP compared with IP housed pigs. In summary, pigs located in PP had greater body temperature and reduced G:F despite similarities in TA and RH between all pens.

Early life thermal stress: Impact on future thermotolerance, stress response, behavior, and intestinal morphology in piglets exposed to a heat stress challenge during simulated transport.

Study objectives were to evaluate the impact of early life thermal stress (ELTS) on thermoregulation, stress response, and intestinal health of piglets subjected to a future heat stress (HS) challenge during simulated transport. From d 7 to 9 post-farrowing, 12 first-parity sows and their litters were exposed to thermoneutral (ELTN; 25.4 ± 1.1 °C w/heat lamp; n = 4), HS (ELHS; cycling 32-38 °C w/heat lamp; n = 4), or cold stress (ELCS; 25.4 ± 1.1 °C w/no heat lamp; n = 4) conditions, and then from d 10 until weaning all piglets were exposed to thermoneutral (TN) conditions (25.3 ± 1.9 °C w/heat lamp). During the ELTS period, respiration rate, rectal temperature (TR), and skin temperature (TS) of three mixed-sex piglets per dam were monitored daily (0800, 1200, 1600, 2000 h). At 13 ± 1.3 d of age, temperature recorders were implanted intra-abdominally into all piglets. At weaning (20.0 ± 1.3 d of age), piglets were bled and then herded up a ramp into a simulated transport trailer and exposed to HS conditions (cycling 32-38 °C) for 8 h. During the 8 h simulated transport, core body temperature (TC) and TS were assessed every 15 min. After the simulated transport, piglets were unloaded from the trailer, bled, weighed, and then housed individually in TN conditions (28.5 ± 0.7 °C) for 7 d. During this time, ADFI and ADG were monitored, blood samples were taken on d 1, 4, and 7, and piglets were video-recorded to assess behavior. Piglets were sacrificed on d 8 post-simulated transport and intestinal morphology was assessed. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED in SAS 9.4. In the ELTS period, piglet TR was increased overall (P = 0.01) in ELHS (39.77 ± 0.05 °C) compared to ELTN (39.34 ± 0.05 °C) and ELCS (39.40 ± 0.05 °C) litters. During simulated transport, TC was greater (P = 0.02) in ELHS (40.84 ± 0.12 °C) compared to ELTN (40.49 ± 0.12 °C) and ELCS (40.39 ± 0.12 °C) pigs. Following simulated transport, BW loss was greater (P = 0.01; 40%) for ELHS compared to ELTN and ELCS pigs and ADFI was reduced (P = 0.05; 28.6%) in ELHS compared to ELTN pigs. Sitting behavior tended to be increased (P = 0.06; 47.4%) in ELHS vs. ELCS or ELTN pigs. Overall, circulating cortisol was greater for ELHS (P ≤ 0.01; 38.8%) compared to ELCS and ELTN pigs. Goblet cells per villi were reduced (P = 0.02; 20%) in the jejunum of ELHS vs. ELCS and ELTN pigs. In summary, ELHS reduced thermotolerance and increased the future stress response of piglets compared to ELCS and ELTN.