Long-term cognitive and psychosocial outcomes in adults with phenylketonuria.

Previous studies have suggested that cognitive and psychosocial underfunctioning in early-treated adults with phenylketonuria (PKU) may be explained by suboptimal adherence to dietary treatments, however, these studies often employ small samples, with different outcome measures, definitions and cut-offs. Samples have also tended to comprise participants with a limited range of blood phenylalanine concentrations, and often individuals who may not have been treated early enough to avoid neurological damage. In this study, we explore the impact of lifetime dietary control, as indicated by blood phenylalanine concentrations in childhood, adolescence and adulthood, on long-term cognitive and psychosocial outcomes in a large sample of adults with PKU who were diagnosed by neonatal screening and commenced on dietary treatment within the first month of life. One hundred and fifty-four participants underwent cognitive testing, assessing attention, learning, working memory, language, executive functioning and processing speed. One hundred and forty-nine completed measures of psychosocial functioning, documenting educational, occupational, quality of life, emotional and social outcomes which were compared with a group of healthy controls. Many adults with PKU demonstrated cognitive impairments, most frequently affecting processing speed (23%), executive function (20%) and learning (12%). Cognitive outcomes were related to measures of historic metabolic control, but only processing speed was significantly related to phenylalanine concentration at the time of testing after controlling for historic levels. Adults with PKU did not, however, differ from controls in educational, occupational, quality of life or emotional outcomes, or on a measure of family functioning, and showed only minor differences in relationship style. These findings have implications for patient counselling and decisions regarding the management of PKU in adulthood.

Antioxidants can inhibit basal autophagy and enhance neurodegeneration in models of polyglutamine disease.

Many neurodegenerative diseases exhibit protein accumulation and increased oxidative stress. Therapeutic strategies include clearing aggregate-prone proteins by enhancing autophagy or decreasing oxidative stress with antioxidants. Many autophagy-inducing stimuli increase reactive oxygen species (ROS), raising concerns that the benefits of autophagy up-regulation may be counterbalanced by ROS toxicity. Here we show that not all autophagy inducers significantly increase ROS. However, many antioxidants inhibit both basal and induced autophagy. By blocking autophagy, antioxidant drugs can increase the levels of aggregate-prone proteins associated with neurodegenerative disease. In fly and zebrafish models of Huntington's disease, antioxidants exacerbate the disease phenotype and abrogate the rescue seen with autophagy-inducing agents. Thus, the potential benefits in neurodegenerative diseases of some classes of antioxidants may be compromised by their autophagy-blocking properties.

Huntington's disease: from pathology and genetics to potential therapies.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a devastating autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by a CAG trinucleotide repeat expansion encoding an abnormally long polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin protein. Much has been learnt since the mutation was identified in 1993. We review the functions of wild-type huntingtin. Mutant huntingtin may cause toxicity via a range of different mechanisms. The primary consequence of the mutation is to confer a toxic gain of function on the mutant protein and this may be modified by certain normal activities that are impaired by the mutation. It is likely that the toxicity of mutant huntingtin is revealed after a series of cleavage events leading to the production of N-terminal huntingtin fragment(s) containing the expanded polyglutamine tract. Although aggregation of the mutant protein is a hallmark of the disease, the role of aggregation is complex and the arguments for protective roles of inclusions are discussed. Mutant huntingtin may mediate some of its toxicity in the nucleus by perturbing specific transcriptional pathways. HD may also inhibit mitochondrial function and proteasome activity. Importantly, not all of the effects of mutant huntingtin may be cell-autonomous, and it is possible that abnormalities in neighbouring neurons and glia may also have an impact on connected cells. It is likely that there is still much to learn about mutant huntingtin toxicity, and important insights have already come and may still come from chemical and genetic screens. Importantly, basic biological studies in HD have led to numerous potential therapeutic strategies.

A rational mechanism for combination treatment of Huntington's disease using lithium and rapamycin.

Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by a polyglutamine expansion mutation in the huntingtin protein that confers a toxic gain-of-function and causes the protein to become aggregate-prone. Aggregate-prone proteins are cleared by macroautophagy, and upregulating this process by rapamycin, which inhibits the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), attenuates their toxicity in various HD models. Recently, we demonstrated that lithium induces mTOR-independent autophagy by inhibiting inositol monophosphatase (IMPase) and reducing inositol and IP3 levels. Here we show that glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta), another enzyme inhibited by lithium, has opposite effects. In contrast to IMPase inhibition that enhances autophagy, GSK3beta inhibition attenuates autophagy and mutant huntingtin clearance by activating mTOR. In order to counteract the autophagy inhibitory effects of mTOR activation resulting from lithium treatment, we have used the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin in combination with lithium. This combination enhances macroautophagy by mTOR-independent (IMPase inhibition by lithium) and mTOR-dependent (mTOR inhibition by rapamycin) pathways. We provide proof-of-principle for this rational combination treatment approach in vivo by showing greater protection against neurodegeneration in an HD fly model with TOR inhibition and lithium, or in HD flies treated with rapamycin and lithium, compared with either pathway alone.