In vivo CAR T cell therapy against angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma.

BACKGROUND: For angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma (AITL), a rare cancer, no specific treatments are available and survival outcome is poor. We previously developed a murine model for AITL that mimics closely human disease and allows to evaluate new treatments. As in human AITL, the murine CD4+ follicular helper T (Tfh) cells are drivers of the malignancy. Therefore, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy might represent a new therapeutic option. METHODS: To prevent fratricide among CAR T cells when delivering an CD4-specific CAR, we used a lentiviral vector (LV) encoding an anti-CD4 CAR, allowing exclusive entry into CD8 T cells. RESULTS: These anti-CD4CAR CD8-targeted LVs achieved in murine AITL biopsies high CAR-expression levels in CD8 T cells. Malignant CD4 Tfh cells were eliminated from the mAITL lymphoma, while the CAR + CD8 T cells expanded upon encounter with the CD4 receptor and were shaped into functional cytotoxic cells. Finally, in vivo injection of the CAR + CD8-LVs into our preclinical AITL mouse model carrying lymphomas, significantly prolonged mice survival. Moreover, the in vivo generated functional CAR + CD8 T cells efficiently reduced neoplastic T cell numbers in the mAITL tumors. CONCLUSION: This is the first description of in vivo generated CAR T cells for therapy of a T cell lymphoma. The strategy described offers a new therapeutic concept for patients suffering from CD4-driven T cell lymphomas.

Dependence on mitochondrial respiration of malignant T cells reveals a new therapeutic target for angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma.

Cancer metabolic reprogramming has been recognized as one of the cancer hallmarks that promote cell proliferation, survival, as well as therapeutic resistance. Up-to-date regulation of metabolism in T-cell lymphoma is poorly understood. In particular, for human angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL) the metabolic profile is not known. Metabolic intervention could help identify new treatment options for this cancer with very poor outcomes and no effective medication. Transcriptomic analysis of AITL tumor cells, identified that these cells use preferentially mitochondrial metabolism. By using our preclinical AITL mouse model, mimicking closely human AITL features, we confirmed that T follicular helper (Tfh) tumor cells exhibit a strong enrichment of mitochondrial metabolic signatures. Consistent with these results, disruption of mitochondrial metabolism using metformin or a mitochondrial complex I inhibitor such as IACS improved the survival of AITL lymphoma-bearing mice. Additionally, we confirmed a selective elimination of the malignant human AITL T cells in patient biopsies upon mitochondrial respiration inhibition. Moreover, we confirmed that diabetic patients suffering from T-cell lymphoma, treated with metformin survived longer as compared to patients receiving alternative treatments. Taking together, our findings suggest that targeting the mitochondrial metabolic pathway could be a clinically efficient approach to inhibit aggressive cancers such as peripheral T-cell lymphoma.

Inhibition of choline metabolism in an angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma preclinical model reveals a new metabolic vulnerability as possible target for treatment.

BACKGROUND: Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL) is a malignancy with very poor survival outcome, in urgent need of more specific therapeutic strategies. The drivers of malignancy in this disease are CD4+ follicular helper T cells (Tfh). The metabolism of these malignant Tfh cells was not yet elucidated. Therefore, we decided to identify their metabolic requirements with the objective to propose a novel therapeutic option. METHODS: To reveal the prominent metabolic pathways used by the AITL lymphoma cells, we relied on metabolomic and proteomic analysis of murine AITL (mAITL) T cells isolated from our established mAITL model. We confirmed these results using AITL patient and healthy T cell expression data. RESULTS: Strikingly, the mAITL Tfh cells were highly dependent on the second branch of the Kennedy pathway, the choline lipid pathway, responsible for the production of the major membrane constituent phosphatidylcholine. Moreover, gene expression data from Tfh cells isolated from AITL patient tumors, confirmed the upregulation of the choline lipid pathway. Several enzymes involved in this pathway such as choline kinase, catalyzing the first step in the phosphatidylcholine pathway, are upregulated in multiple tumors other than AITL. Here we showed that treatment of our mAITL preclinical mouse model with a fatty acid oxydation inhibitor, significantly increased their survival and even reverted the exhausted CD8 T cells in the tumor into potent cytotoxic anti-tumor cells. Specific inhibition of Chokα confirmed the importance of the phosphatidylcholine production pathway in neoplastic CD4 + T cells, nearly eradicating mAITL Tfh cells from the tumors. Finally, the same inhibitor induced in human AITL lymphoma biopsies cell death of the majority of the hAITL PD-1high neoplastic cells. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that interfering with choline metabolism in AITL reveals a specific metabolic vulnerability and might represent a new therapeutic strategy for these patients.

Nanoblades allow high-level genome editing in murine and human organoids.

Genome engineering has become more accessible thanks to the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing system. However, using this technology in synthetic organs called "organoids" is still very inefficient. This is due to the delivery methods for the CRISPR-Cas9 machinery, which include electroporation of CRISPR-Cas9 DNA, mRNA, or ribonucleoproteins containing the Cas9-gRNA complex. However, these procedures are quite toxic for the organoids. Here, we describe the use of the "nanoblade (NB)" technology, which outperformed by far gene-editing levels achieved to date for murine- and human tissue-derived organoids. We reached up to 75% of reporter gene knockout in organoids after treatment with NBs. Indeed, high-level NB-mediated knockout for the androgen receptor encoding gene and the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene was achieved with single gRNA or dual gRNA containing NBs in murine prostate and colon organoids. Likewise, NBs achieved 20%-50% gene editing in human organoids. Most importantly, in contrast to other gene-editing methods, this was obtained without toxicity for the organoids. Only 4 weeks are required to obtain stable gene knockout in organoids and NBs simplify and allow rapid genome editing in organoids with little to no side effects including unwanted insertion/deletions in off-target sites thanks to transient Cas9/RNP expression.

Repurposing the Bis-Biguanide Alexidine in Combination with Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors to Eliminate Leukemic Stem/Progenitor Cells in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: In CML, Leukemic Stem Cells (LSCs) that are insensitive to Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors are responsible for leukemia maintenance and relapses upon TKI treatment arrest. We previously showed that downregulation of the BMI1 polycomb protein that is crucial for stem/progenitor cells self-renewal induced a CCNG2/dependent proliferation arrest leading to elimination of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) cells. Unfortunately, as of today, pharmacological inhibition of BMI1 has not made its way to the clinic. METHODS: We used the Connectivity Map bioinformatic database to identify pharmacological molecules that could mimick BMI1 silencing, to induce CML cell death. We selected the bis-biguanide Alexidin (ALX) that produced a transcriptomic profile positively correlating with the one obtained after BMI silencing in K562 CML cells. We then evaluated the efficiency of ALX in combination with TKI on CML cells. RESULTS: Here we report that cell growth and clonogenic activity of K562 and LAMA-84 CML cell lines were strongly inhibited by ALX. ALX didn't modify BCR::ABL1 phosphorylation and didn't affect BMI1 expression but was able to increase CCNG2 expression leading to autophagic processes that preceed cell death. Besides, ALX could enhance the apoptotic response induced by any Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors (TKI) of the three generations. We also noted a strong synergism between ALX and TKIs to increase expression of caspase-9 and caspase-3 and induce PARP cleavage, Bad expression and significantly decreased Bcl-xL family member expression. We also observed that the blockage of the mitochondrial respiratory chain by ALX can be associated with inhibition of glycolysis by 2-DG to achieve an enhanced inhibition of K562 proliferation and clonogenicity. ALX specifically affected the differentiation of BCR::ABL1-transduced healthy CD34+ cells but not of mock-infected healthy CD34+ control cells. Importantly, ALX strongly synergized with TKIs to inhibit clonogenicity of primary CML CD34+ cells from diagnosed patients. Long Term Culture of Initiating Cell (LTC-IC) and dilution of the fluorescent marker CFSE allowed us to observe that ALX and Imatinib (IM) partially reduced the number of LSCs by themselves but that the ALX/IM combination drastically reduced this cell compartment. Using an in vivo model of NSG mice intravenously injected with K562-Luciferase transduced CML cells, we showed that ALX combined with IM improved mice survival. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, our results validate the use of ALX bis-biguanide to potentiate the action of conventional TKI treatment as a potential new therapeutic solution to eradicate CML LSCs.

IRE1α overexpression in malignant cells limits tumor progression by inducing an anti-cancer immune response.

IRE1α is one of the three ER transmembrane transducers of the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) activated under endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. IRE1α activation has a dual role in cancer as it may be either pro- or anti-tumoral depending on the studied models. Here, we describe the discovery that exogenous expression of IRE1α, resulting in IRE1α auto-activation, did not affect cancer cell proliferation in vitro but resulted in a tumor-suppressive phenotype in syngeneic immunocompetent mice. We found that exogenous expression of IRE1α in murine colorectal and Lewis lung carcinoma cells impaired tumor growth when syngeneic tumor cells were subcutaneously implanted in immunocompetent mice but not in immunodeficient mice. Mechanistically, the in vivo tumor-suppressive effect of overexpressing IRE1α in tumor cells was associated with IRE1α RNAse activity driving both XBP1 mRNA splicing and regulated IRE1-dependent decay of RNA (RIDD). We showed that the tumor-suppressive phenotype upon IRE1α overexpression was characterized by the induction of apoptosis in tumor cells along with an enhanced adaptive anti-cancer immunosurveillance. Hence, our work indicates that IRE1α overexpression and/or activation in tumor cells can limit tumor growth in immunocompetent mice. This finding might point toward the need of adjusting the use of IRE1α inhibitors in cancer treatments based on the predominant outcome of the RNAse activity of IRE1α.

Novel T Follicular Helper-like T-Cell Lymphoma Therapies: From Preclinical Evaluation to Clinical Reality.

The classification of peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCL) is constantly changing and contains multiple subtypes. Here, we focus on Tfh-like PTCL, to which angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL) belongs, according to the last WHO classification. The first-line treatment of these malignancies still relies on chemotherapy but gives very unsatisfying results for these patients. Enormous progress in the last decade in terms of understanding the implicated genetic mutations leading to signaling and epigenetic pathway deregulation in Tfh PTCL allowed the research community to propose new therapeutic approaches. These findings point towards new biomarkers and new therapies, including hypomethylating agents, such as azacytidine, and inhibitors of the TCR-hyperactivating molecules in Tfh PTCL. Additionally, metabolic interference, inhibitors of the NF-κB and PI3K-mTOR pathways and possibly novel immunotherapies, such as antibodies and chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) directed against Tfh malignant T-cell surface markers, are discussed in this review among other new treatment options.

Targeting CISH enhances natural cytotoxicity receptor signaling and reduces NK cell exhaustion to improve solid tumor immunity.

BACKGROUND: The success and limitations of current immunotherapies have pushed research toward the development of alternative approaches and the possibility to manipulate other cytotoxic immune cells such as natural killer (NK) cells. Here, we targeted an intracellular inhibiting protein 'cytokine inducible SH2-containing protein' (CISH) in NK cells to evaluate the impact on their functions and antitumor properties. METHODS: To further understand CISH functions in NK cells, we developed a conditional Cish-deficient mouse model in NK cells (Cishfl/flNcr1Ki/+ ). NK cells cytokine expression, signaling and cytotoxicity has been evaluated in vitro. Using intravenous injection of B16F10 melanoma cell line and EO711 triple negative breast cancer cell line, metastasis evaluation was performed. Then, orthotopic implantation of breast tumors was performed and tumor growth was followed using bioluminescence. Infiltration and phenotype of NK cells in the tumor was evaluated. Finally, we targeted CISH in human NK-92 or primary NK cells, using a technology combining the CRISPR(i)-dCas9 tool with a new lentiviral pseudotype. We then tested human NK cells functions. RESULTS: In Cishfl/flNcr1Ki/+ mice, we detected no developmental or homeostatic difference in NK cells. Global gene expression of Cishfl/flNcr1Ki/+ NK cells compared with Cish+/+Ncr1Ki/+ NK cells revealed upregulation of pathways and genes associated with NK cell cycling and activation. We show that CISH does not only regulate interleukin-15 (IL-15) signaling pathways but also natural cytotoxicity receptors (NCR) pathways, triggering CISH protein expression. Primed Cishfl/flNcr1Ki/+ NK cells display increased activation upon NCR stimulation. Cishfl/flNcr1Ki/+ NK cells display lower activation thresholds and Cishfl/flNcr1Ki/+ mice are more resistant to tumor metastasis and to primary breast cancer growth. CISH deletion favors NK cell accumulation to the primary tumor, optimizes NK cell killing properties and decreases TIGIT immune checkpoint receptor expression, limiting NK cell exhaustion. Finally, using CRISPRi, we then targeted CISH in human NK-92 or primary NK cells. In human NK cells, CISH deletion also favors NCR signaling and antitumor functions. CONCLUSION: This study represents a crucial step in the mechanistic understanding and safety of Cish targeting to unleash NK cell antitumor function in solid tumors. Our results validate CISH as an emerging therapeutic target to enhance NK cell immunotherapy.

Baboon Envelope Pseudotyped "Nanoblades" Carrying Cas9/gRNA Complexes Allow Efficient Genome Editing in Human T, B, and CD34+ Cells and Knock-in of AAV6-Encoded Donor DNA in CD34+ Cells.

Programmable nucleases have enabled rapid and accessible genome engineering in eukaryotic cells and living organisms. However, their delivery into human blood cells can be challenging. Here, we have utilized "nanoblades," a new technology that delivers a genomic cleaving agent into cells. These are modified murine leukemia virus (MLV) or HIV-derived virus-like particle (VLP), in which the viral structural protein Gag has been fused to Cas9. These VLPs are thus loaded with Cas9 protein complexed with the guide RNAs. Highly efficient gene editing was obtained in cell lines, IPS and primary mouse and human cells. Here, we showed that nanoblades were remarkably efficient for entry into human T, B, and hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) thanks to their surface co-pseudotyping with baboon retroviral and VSV-G envelope glycoproteins. A brief incubation of human T and B cells with nanoblades incorporating two gRNAs resulted in 40 and 15% edited deletion in the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) gene locus, respectively. CD34+ cells (HSPCs) treated with the same nanoblades allowed 30-40% exon 1 drop-out in the WAS gene locus. Importantly, no toxicity was detected upon nanoblade-mediated gene editing of these blood cells. Finally, we also treated HSPCs with nanoblades in combination with a donor-encoding rAAV6 vector resulting in up to 40% of stable expression cassette knock-in into the WAS gene locus. Summarizing, this new technology is simple to implement, shows high flexibility for different targets including primary immune cells of human and murine origin, is relatively inexpensive and therefore gives important prospects for basic and clinical translation in the area of gene therapy.

Importance of T, NK, CAR T and CAR NK Cell Metabolic Fitness for Effective Anti-Cancer Therapy: A Continuous Learning Process Allowing the Optimization of T, NK and CAR-Based Anti-Cancer Therapies.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T and CAR NK cell therapies opened new avenues for cancer treatment. Although original successes of CAR T and CAR NK cells for the treatment of hematological malignancies were extraordinary, several obstacles have since been revealed, in particular their use for the treatment of solid cancers. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is competing for nutrients with T and NK cells and their CAR-expressing counterparts, paralyzing their metabolic effective and active states. Consequently, this can lead to alterations in their anti-tumoral capacity and persistence in vivo. High glucose uptake and the depletion of key amino acids by the TME can deprive T and NK cells of energy and building blocks, which turns them into a state of anergy, where they are unable to exert cytotoxic activity against cancer cells. This is especially true in the context of an immune-suppressive TME. In order to re-invigorate the T, NK, CAR T and CAR NK cell-mediated antitumor response, the field is now attempting to understand how metabolic pathways might change T and NK responses and functions, as well as those from their CAR-expressing partners. This revealed ways to metabolically rewire these cells by using metabolic enhancers or optimizing pre-infusion in vitro cultures of these cells. Importantly, next-generation CAR T and CAR NK products might include in the future the necessary metabolic requirements by improving their design, manufacturing process and other parameters. This will allow the overcoming of current limitations due to their interaction with the suppressive TME. In a clinical setting, this might improve their anti-cancer effector activity in synergy with immunotherapies. In this review, we discuss how the tumor cells and TME interfere with T and NK cell metabolic requirements. This may potentially lead to therapeutic approaches that enhance the metabolic fitness of CAR T and CAR NK cells, with the objective to improve their anti-cancer capacity.

New preclinical models for angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma: filling the GAP.

Mouse models are essential to study and comprehend normal and malignant hematopoiesis. The ideal preclinical model should mimic closely the human malignancy. This means that these mice should recapitulate the clinical behavior of the human diseases such as cancer and therapeutic responses with high reproducibility. In addition, the genetic mutational status, the cell phenotype, the microenvironment of the tumor and the time until tumor development occurs, should be mimicked in a preclinical model. This has been particularly challenging for human angioimmunoblastic lymphoma (AITL), one of the most prominent forms of peripheral T-cell lymphomas. A complex network of interactions between AITL tumor cells and the various cells of the tumor microenvironment has impeded the study of AITL pathogenesis in vitro. Very recently, new mouse models that recapitulate faithfully the major features of human AITL disease have been developed. Here, we provide a summary of the pathology, the transcriptional profile and genetic and immune-phenotypic features of human AITL. In addition, we give an overview of preclinical models that recapitulate more or less faithfully human AITL characteristics and pathology. These recently engineered mouse models were essential in the evaluation of novel therapeutic agents for possible treatment of AITL, a malignancy in urgent need of new treatment options.