Lanthanide-Based Probes for Imaging Detection of Enzyme Activities by NIR Luminescence, T1- and ParaCEST MRI.

Applying a single molecular probe to monitor enzymatic activities in multiple, complementary imaging modalities is highly desirable to ascertain detection and to avoid the complexity associated with the use of agents of different chemical entities. We demonstrate here the versatility of lanthanide (Ln3+) complexes with respect to their optical and magnetic properties and their potential for enzymatic detection in NIR luminescence, CEST and T1 MR imaging, controlled by the nature of the Ln3+ ion, while using a unique chelator. Based on X-ray structural, photophysical, and solution NMR investigations of a family of Ln3+ DO3A-pyridine model complexes, we could rationalize the luminescence (Eu3+, Yb3+), CEST (Yb3+) and relaxation (Gd3+) properties and their variations between carbamate and amine derivatives. This allowed the design of L n L G a l 5 ${{{\bf L n L}}_{{\bf G a l}}^{5}}$ probes which undergo enzyme-mediated changes detectable in NIR luminescence, CEST and T1-weighted MRI, respectively governed by variations in their absorption energy, in their exchanging proton pool and in their size, thus relaxation efficacy. We demonstrate that these properties can be exploited for the visualization of ß-galactosidase activity in phantom samples by different imaging modalities: NIR optical imaging, CEST and T1-weighted MRI.

Lanthanide DO3A-Complexes Bearing Peptide Substrates: The Effect of Peptidic Side Chains on Metal Coordination and Relaxivity.

Two DO3A-type ligands conjugated to substrates of urokinase (L3) and caspase-3 (L4) via a propyl-amide linker were synthesized and their lanthanide(III) (Ln3+) complexes studied. A model compound without peptide substrate (L2) and an amine derivative ligand mimicking the state after enzymatic cleavage (L1) were also prepared. Proton Nuclear Magnetic Relaxation Dispersion (NMRD) profiles recorded on the gadolinium(III) (Gd3+) complexes, complemented with the assessment of hydration numbers via luminescence lifetime measurements on the Eu3+ analogues, allowed us to characterize the lanthanide coordination sphere in the chelates. These data suggest that the potential donor groups of the peptide side chains (carboxylate, amine) interfere in metal coordination, leading to non-hydrated LnL3 and LnL4 complexes. Nevertheless, GdL3 and GdL4 retain a relatively high relaxivity due to an important second-sphere contribution generated by the strongly hydrophilic peptide chain. Weak PARACEST effects are detected for the amine-derivative EuL1 and NdL1 chelates. Unfortunately, the GdL3 and GdL4 complexes are not significantly converted by the enzymes. The lack of enzymatic recognition of these complexes can likely be explained by the participation of donor groups from the peptide side chain in metal coordination.

A Pyridine-Based Ligand with Two Hydrazine Functions for Lanthanide Chelation: Remarkable Kinetic Inertness for a Linear, Bishydrated Complex.

To study the influence of hydrazine functions in the ligand skeleton, we designed the heptadentate HYD ligand (2,2',2″,2‴-(2,2'-(pyridine-2,6-diyl)bis(2-methylhydrazine-2,1,1-triyl)) tetraacetic acid) and compared the thermodynamic, kinetic, and relaxation properties of its Ln(3+) complexes to those of the parent pyridine (Py) analogues without hydrazine (Py = 2,6-pyridinebis(methanamine)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid). The protonation constants of HYD were determined by pH-potentiometric measurements, and assigned by a combination of UV-visible and NMR spectroscopies. The protonation sequence is rather unusual and illustrates that small structural changes can strongly influence ligand basicity. The first protonation step occurs on the pyridine nitrogen in the basic region, followed by two hydrazine nitrogens and the carboxylate groups at acidic pH. Contrary to Py, HYD self-aggregates through a pH-dependent process (from pH ca. 4). Thermodynamic stability constants have been obtained by pH-potentiometry and UV-visible spectrophotometry for various Ln(3+) and physiological cations (Zn(2+), Ca(2+), Cu(2+)). LnHYD stability constants show the same trend as those of LnDTPA complexes along the Ln(3+) series, with log K = 18.33 for Gd(3+), comparable to the Py analogue. CuHYD has a particularly high stability (log K > 19) preventing its determination from pH-potentiometric measurements. The stability constant of CuPy was also revisited and found to be underestimated in previous studies, highlighting that UV-visible spectrophotometry is often indispensable to obtain reliable stability constants for Cu(2+) chelates. The dissociation of GdL, assessed by studying the Cu(2+)-exchange reaction, occurs mainly via an acid-catalyzed process, with limited contribution from direct Cu(2+) attack. The kinetic inertness of GdHYD is remarkable for a linear bishydrated chelate; the 25-fold increase in the dissociation half-life with respect to the monohydrated commercial contrast agent GdDTPA (t1/2 = 5298 h for GdHYD vs 202 h for GdDTPA) is related to the rigidity of the HYD ligand due to the pyridine and methylated hydrazine functions of the backbone. A combined analysis of variable-temperature (17)O NMR and NMRD data on GdHYD yielded the microscopic parameters influencing relaxation properties. The high relaxivity (r1 = 7.7 mM(-1) s(-1) at 20 MHz, 25 °C) results from the bishydrated character of the complex combined with an optimized water exchange rate (kex(298) = 7.8 × 10(6) s(-1)). The two inner-sphere water molecules are not replaced through interaction with biological cations such as carbonate, citrate, and phosphate as monitored by (1)H relaxivity and luminescence lifetime measurements.

Are parkin patients particularly suited for deep-brain stimulation?

Patients with parkin mutations are known to have slower PD progression and a better response to levodopa at lower doses than patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. To determine the effects of deep brain stimulation (DBS) on such patients, we have compared the follow-up after surgery of 7 patients with one parkin mutation, 7 patients with two parkin mutations, and 39 patients without parkin mutations. Twelve to 24 months after neurosurgery, the daily doses of levodopa equivalent were significantly lower in patients with two parkin mutations, indicating that these patients benefit from DBS, and they might have more durable results.

Initial characterization of kinocilin, a protein of the hair cell kinocilium.

A subtracted library prepared from vestibular sensory areas [Nat. Genet. 26 (2000) 51] was used to identify a 960bp murine transcript preferentially expressed in the inner ear and testis. The cDNA predicts a basic 124aa protein that does not share any significant sequence homology with known proteins. Immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy revealed that the protein is located mainly in the kinocilium of sensory cells in the inner ear. The protein was thus named kinocilin. In the mouse, kinocilin is first detected in the kinocilia of vestibular and auditory hair cells at embryonic days 14.5, and 18.5, respectively. In the mature vestibular hair cells, kinocilin is still present in the kinocilium. As the auditory hair cells begin to lose the kinocilium during postnatal development, kinocilin becomes distributed in an annular pattern at the apex of these cells, where it co-localizes with the tubulin belt [Hear. Res. 42 (1989) 1]. In mature auditory hair cells, kinocilin is also present at the level of the cuticular plate, at the base of each stereocilium. In addition, as the kinocilium regresses from developing auditory hair cells, kinocilin begins to be expressed by the pillar cells and Deiters cells, that both contain prominent transcellular and apical bundles of microtubules. By contrast, kinocilin was not detected in the supporting cells in the vestibular end organs. The protein is also present in the manchette of the spermatids, a transient structure enriched in interconnected microtubules. We propose that kinocilin has a role in stabilizing dense microtubular networks or in vesicular trafficking.

Usher syndrome type I G (USH1G) is caused by mutations in the gene encoding SANS, a protein that associates with the USH1C protein, harmonin.

Usher syndrome type I (USH1) is the most frequent cause of hereditary deaf-blindness in humans. Seven genetic loci (USH1A-G) have been implicated in this disease to date, and four of the corresponding genes have been identified: USH1B, C, D and F. We carried out fine mapping of USH1G (chromosome 17q24-25), restricting the location of this gene to an interval of 2.6 Mb and then screened genes present within this interval for mutations. The genes screened included the orthologue of the Sans gene, which is defective in the Jackson shaker deaf mutant and maps to the syntenic region in mice. In two consanguineous USH1G-affected families, we detected two different frameshift mutations in the SANS gene. Two brothers from a German family affected with USH1G were found to be compound heterozygotes for a frameshift and a missense mutation. These results demonstrate that SANS underlies USH1G. The SANS protein contains three ankyrin domains and a sterile alpha motif, and its C-terminal tripeptide presents a class I PDZ-binding motif. We showed, by means of co-transfection experiments, that SANS associates with harmonin, a PDZ domain-containing protein responsible for USH1C. In Jackson shaker mice the hair bundles, the mechanoreceptive structures of inner ear sensory cells, are disorganized. Based on the known interaction between USH1B (myosin VIIa), USH1C (harmonin) and USH1D (cadherin 23) proteins and the results obtained in this study, we suggest that a functional network formed by the USH1B, C, D and G proteins is responsible for the correct cohesion of the hair bundle.