Robotic Mammosphere Assay for High-Throughput Screening in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer.

In order to identify novel treatment principles specifically affecting cancer stem cells in triple-negative breast cancer, we have developed a high-throughput screening method based on the mammosphere and anoikis resistance assays allowing us to screen compounds using a functional readout. The assay was validated against manual protocols and through the use of positive controls, such as the response to hypoxia and treatment with the known cancer stem cell-targeting compound salinomycin. Manual and robotic procedures were compared and produced similar results in cell handling, cell cultures, and counting techniques, with no statistically significant difference produced from either method. The variance between samples processed manually versus robotically was no greater than 0.012, while Levene's test of significance was 0.2, indicating no significant difference between mammosphere data produced manually or robotically. Through the screening of 989 FDA-approved drugs and a follow-up screen assessing the antineoplastic subgroup, we have identified three therapeutic compounds with the ability to modulate the breast cancer stem cell fraction in the triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231, highlighting their potential usage as stem cell-specific adjuvant treatments.

PO-21 - Stromal fibroblasts in preinvasive breast cancer (ductal carcinoma in situ, DCIS) demonstrate a cancer-like procoagulant phenotypic switch that may facilitate invasion.

INTRODUCTION: Ductal carcinoma in-situ (DCIS) is a preinvasive breast cancer where cancer cells remain confined within the ductal basement membrane. However, genotypic changes have been identified in stroma surrounding DCIS, outside the basement membrane. Stromal fibroblasts undergo phenotypic change in cancer to promote tumour angiogenesis, proliferation, immunosuppression and metastasis and in vivo can induce invasion of DCIS. Phenotypic changes in DCIS stromal fibroblasts may potentially act as a precursor for invasion. AIM: To determine if stromal fibroblasts in DCIS have procoagulant changes similar to those seen in cancer-associated fibroblasts in invasive breast cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: As part of the prospective cohort study CHAMPion (Cancer induced Hypercoagulabulity as a Marker of Prognosis), patients with DCIS (n=72) and invasive breast cancer (n=292) were recruited. Stromal fibroblasts in tumour and corresponding normal breast tissue (distant from the cancer) were quantified (percentage IHC stained) for tissue factor (TF), thrombin, PAR1 and PAR2. Fibroblasts were identified morphologically, at a minimum distance of 0.2mm from ductal tissue, to avoid myoepithelial scoring. Scoring was performed in duplicate by two independent pathologists. RESULTS: Fibroblast TF expression was present in normal breast tissue (mean 43% ([SD 27%]) but markedly increased in DCIS (mean 62% [SD 27%], p=0.002). Fibroblast TF expression was further increased in invasive breast cancer (mean 74% [SD 23%], normal vs invasion, p<0.001; DCIS vs invasion, p=0.03). Fibroblast thrombin and PAR2, but not PAR1, expression was increased in DCIS compared to normal (thrombin: 60% vs 42%, p<0.001; PAR2: 58% vs 41%, p=0.002), however no further significant increase was seen in invasive cancer (thrombin 63%, PAR2 61%). Fibroblast tissue factor correlated with fibroblast thrombin expression (p<0.001, r=0.4) and fibroblast PAR2 expression (p<0.001, r=0.5), with thrombin and PAR2 expression also correlating (p<0.001, r=0.4). CONCLUSIONS: Procoagulant phenotypic changes, in terms of increased TF, thrombin and PAR2 expression, occur in stromal fibroblasts at the preinvasive stage. It needs to be determined if this change is functional and therefore a potential therapeutic target for preventing transition to invasion.

The C/EBPδ protein is stabilized by estrogen receptor α activity, inhibits SNAI2 expression and associates with good prognosis in breast cancer.

Hypoxia and inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-6 (IL-6, IL6) are strongly linked to cancer progression, and signal in part through the transcription factor Ccaat/enhancer-binding protein δ (C/EBPδ, CEBPD), which has been shown to promote mesenchymal features and malignant progression of glioblastoma. Here we report a different role for C/EBPδ in breast cancer. We found that the C/EBPδ protein is expressed in normal breast epithelial cells and in low-grade cancers. C/EBPδ protein (but not mRNA) expression correlates with estrogen receptor (ER+) and progesterone receptor (PGR) expression and longer progression-free survival of breast cancer patients. Specifically in ER+ breast cancers, CEBPD-but not the related CEBPB-mRNA in combination with IL6 correlated with lower risk of progression. Functional studies in cell lines showed that ERα promotes C/EBPδ expression at the level of protein stability by inhibition of the FBXW7 pathway. Furthermore, we found that C/EBPδ attenuates cell growth, motility and invasiveness by inhibiting expression of the SNAI2 (Slug) transcriptional repressor, which leads to expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor CDKN1A (p21CIP1/WAF1). These findings identify a molecular mechanism by which ERα signaling reduces the aggressiveness of cancer cells, and demonstrate that C/EBPδ can have different functions in different types of cancer. Furthermore, our results support a potentially beneficial role for the IL-6 pathway specifically in ER+ breast cancer and call for further evaluation of the role of intra-tumoral IL-6 expression and of which cancers might benefit from current attempts to target the IL-6 pathway as a therapeutic strategy.

TGF-beta receptor type-2 expression in cancer-associated fibroblasts regulates breast cancer cell growth and survival and is a prognostic marker in pre-menopausal breast cancer.

Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß) is a pleiotropic cytokine with the capability to act as tumour suppressor or tumour promoter depending on the cellular context. TGF-beta receptor type-2 (TGFBR2) is the ligand-binding receptor for all members of the TGF-ß family. Data from mouse model experiments demonstrated that loss of Tgfbr2 expression in mammary fibroblasts was linked to tumour initiation and metastasis. Using a randomised tamoxifen trial cohort including in total 564 invasive breast carcinomas, we examined TGFBR2 expression (n=252) and phosphorylation level of downstream target SMAD2 (pSMAD2) (n=319) in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and assessed links to clinicopathological markers, prognostic and treatment-predictive values. The study revealed that CAF-specific TGFBR2 expression correlated with improved recurrence-free survival. Multivariate analysis confirmed CAF-TGFBR2 to be an independent prognostic marker (multivariate Cox regression, hazard ratio: 0.534, 95% (CI): 0.360-0.793, P=0.002). CAF-specific pSMAD2 levels, however, did not associate with survival outcome. Experimentally, TGF-ß signalling in fibroblasts was modulated using a TGF-ß ligand and inhibitor or through lentiviral short hairpin RNA-mediated TGFBR2-specific knockdown. To determine the role of fibroblastic TGF-ß pathway on breast cancer cells, we used cell contact-dependent cell growth and clonogenicity assays, which showed that knockdown of TGFBR2 in CAFs resulted in increased cell growth, proliferation and clonogenic survival. Further, in a mouse model transfected CAFs were co-injected with MCF7 and tumour weight and proportion was monitored. We found that mouse xenograft tumours comprising TGFBR2 knockdown fibroblasts were slightly bigger and displayed increased tumour cell capacity. Overall, our data demonstrate that fibroblast-related biomarkers possess clinically relevant information and that fibroblasts confer effects on breast cancer cell growth and survival. Regulation of tumour-stromal cross-talk through fibroblastic TGF-ß pathway may depend on fibroblast phenotype, emphasising the importance to characterise tumour microenvironment subtypes.

Tumour-related factors and prognosis in breast cancer detected by screening.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer detected by screening has an unexplained prognostic advantage beyond stage shift compared with cancers detected clinically. The aim was to investigate biological factors in invasive breast cancer, with reference to mode of detection and rate of death from breast cancer. METHODS: Histology, oestrogen receptor α and ß, progesterone receptor, human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) 2, cyclin D1, p27, Ki-67 and perinodal growth were analysed in 466 tumours from a prospective cohort, the Malmö Diet and Cancer Study. Using logistic regression, odds ratios were calculated to investigate the relationship between tumour characteristics and mode of detection. The same tumour factors were analysed in relation to standard prognostic features. Death from breast cancer was analysed using Cox regression with adjustments for standard tumour factors; differences following adjustment were analysed by means of Freedman statistics. RESULTS: None of the biological tumour characteristics varied with mode of detection of breast cancer. After adjustment for age, tumour size, axillary lymph node involvement (ALNI) and grade, women with cancer detected clinically had an increased risk of death from breast cancer (hazard ratio 2·48, 95 per cent confidence interval 1·34 to 4·59), corresponding to a 37·2 per cent difference compared with the unadjusted model. Additional adjustment for biological tumour factors studied caused only minor changes. CONCLUSION: None of the biological tumour markers investigated explained the improved prognosis in breast cancer detected by screening. None of the factors was related to ALNI, suggesting that other mechanisms may be responsible for tumour spread.

The cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript mediates ligand-independent activation of ERα, and is an independent prognostic factor in node-negative breast cancer.

Personalized medicine requires the identification of unambiguous prognostic and predictive biomarkers to inform therapeutic decisions. Within this context, the management of lymph node-negative breast cancer is the subject of much debate with particular emphasis on the requirement for adjuvant chemotherapy. The identification of prognostic and predictive biomarkers in this group of patients is crucial. Here, we demonstrate by tissue microarray and automated image analysis that the cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) is expressed in primary and metastatic breast cancer and is an independent poor prognostic factor in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive, lymph node-negative tumors in two separate breast cancer cohorts (n=690; P=0.002, 0.013). We also show that CART increases the transcriptional activity of ERα in a ligand-independent manner via the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and that CART stimulates an autocrine/paracrine loop within tumor cells to amplify the CART signal. Additionally, we demonstrate that CART expression in ER-positive breast cancer cell lines protects against tamoxifen-mediated cell death and that high CART expression predicts disease outcome in tamoxifen-treated patients in vivo in three independent breast cancer cohorts. We believe that CART profiling will help facilitate stratification of lymph node-negative breast cancer patients into high- and low-risk categories and allow for the personalization of therapy.

Risk of recurrence following delayed large flap reconstruction after mastectomy for breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this retrospective matched cohort study was to evaluate the rate of recurrence among women with delayed large flap breast reconstruction after mastectomy for breast cancer. The recurrence rate among women treated at a single hospital was compared with that in an individually matched control group of women with breast cancer who did not have reconstruction after mastectomy. METHODS: Between 1982 and 2001, 125 women with previous invasive breast carcinoma underwent delayed large flap breast reconstruction with pedicled musculocutaneous or microvascular flaps (a median of 32 months after mastectomy). They were matched individually with 182 women with breast cancer who had a mastectomy but did not undergo breast reconstruction. Matching criteria were year of diagnosis, age at diagnosis and treating hospital. Medical records were evaluated until October 2007. Histopathological specimens for all included women were re-evaluated. The endpoint was locoregional or distant breast cancer recurrence. The risk of recurrent disease was calculated using a Cox proportional hazards analysis, adjusted for established prognostic factors. RESULTS: Median follow-up for the entire cohort was 146 months. The reconstruction group had a 2·08 (95 per cent confidence interval 1·07 to 4·06) times higher risk of recurrent disease than the mastectomy only group. CONCLUSION: Women with breast cancer who had delayed reconstruction with a large flap in this study had a higher risk of recurrent disease than those with mastectomy alone.

Hypoxia, Snail and incomplete epithelial-mesenchymal transition in breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Hypoxia is an element of the tumour microenvironment that impacts upon numerous cellular factors linked to clinical aggressiveness in cancer. One such factor, Snail, a master regulator of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), has been implicated in key tumour biological processes such as invasion and metastasis. In this study we set out to investigate regulation of EMT in hypoxia, and the importance of Snail in cell migration and clinical outcome in breast cancer. METHODS: Four breast cancer cell lines were exposed to 0.1% oxygen and expression of EMT markers was monitored. The migratory ability was analysed following Snail overexpression and silencing. Snail expression was assessed in 500 tumour samples from premenopausal breast cancer patients, randomised to either 2 years of tamoxifen or no adjuvant treatment. RESULTS: Exposure to 0.1% oxygen resulted in elevated levels of Snail protein, along with changes in vimentin and E-cadherin expression, and in addition increased migration of MDA-MB-468 cells. Overexpression of Snail increased the motility of MCF-7, T-47D and MDA-MB-231 cells, whereas silencing of the protein resulted in decreased migratory propensity of MCF-7, MDA-MB-468 and MDA-MB-231 cells. Moreover, nuclear Snail expression was associated with tumours of higher grade and proliferation rate, but not with disease recurrence. Interestingly, Snail negativity was associated with impaired tamoxifen response (P=0.048). CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that hypoxia induces Snail expression but generally not a migratory phenotype, suggesting that hypoxic cells are only partially pushed towards EMT. Furthermore, our study supports the link between Snail and clinically relevant features and treatment response.

Phosphorylation of the oestrogen receptor alpha at serine 305 and prediction of tamoxifen resistance in breast cancer.

Phosphorylation of oestrogen receptor alpha at serine 305 (ERalphaS305-P) induces tamoxifen resistance in experimental studies, but does not influence response to other endocrine agents, such as fulvestrant. We evaluated ERalphaS305-P using immunohistochemistry in 377 breast carcinomas from premenopausal participants of a randomized trial (n=248) and patients with advanced disease (n=129). Among the premenopausal patients, adjuvant tamoxifen improved recurrence-free survival (RFS) for ERalphaS305-P-negative tumours (multivariate HR=0.53, 95% CI 0.32-0.86, p=0.010), but not for ERalphaS305-P-positive tumours (multivariate HR=1.01, 95% CI 0.33-3.05, p=0.99) (interaction p=0.131). Notably, ERalphaS305-P was not significantly associated with RFS in patients not treated with tamoxifen (multivariate HR=0.64, 95% CI 0.30-1.37, p=0.248), indicating that ERalphaS305-P is a marker for treatment outcome rather than tumour progression. Given the direct experimental link between ERalphaS305-P and tamoxifen resistance and these first clinical data suggesting that premenopausal patients with ERalphaS305-P-positive breast cancer are resistant to adjuvant tamoxifen, further research is encouraged to study whether alternative endocrine treatment should be considered for this subgroup.

Parity in relation to survival following breast cancer.

AIM: The present study examines the association between parity and survival following breast cancer diagnosis. METHODS: Medical records of 4453 women diagnosed with breast cancer in Malmö, Sweden, between 1961 and 1991 were analysed. All women were followed until 31 December 2003, using the Swedish Cause-of-Death Registry. Breast cancer specific mortality rate was calculated in different levels of parity. Corresponding relative risks, with 95% confidence intervals (CI), were obtained using Cox's proportional hazards analysis. All analyses were adjusted for potential prognostic factors and stratified for age, menopausal status and diagnostic period. RESULTS: As compared to women with one child, nulliparity (RR 1.27: 95% CI 1.09-1.47), and high parity (four or more children) (1.49: 1.20-1.85) were positively associated with a high mortality from breast cancer. When adjusted for potential confounders, the association was only statistically significant for high parity (1.33: 1.07-1.66). In the analyses stratified on age and menopausal status, there was a similar positive association between high parity and breast cancer death in all strata, although only statistically significant among women older than 45 years of age or postmenopausal. Nulliparity was associated with breast cancer death in women that were younger than 45 years of age (1.28: 0.79-2.09) or premenopausal (1.30: 0.95-1.80), but these associations did not reach statistical significance. There was no association between nulliparity and breast cancer death in women older than 45 years of age or postmenopausal. All associations were similar in analyses stratified for diagnostic period. CONCLUSION: Women with four or more children have a poor breast cancer survival as compared to women with one child.

Oestrogen receptors alpha and beta show different associations to clinicopathological parameters and their co-expression might predict a better response to endocrine treatment in breast cancer.

AIMS: The majority of all breast cancers are hormone responsive, traditionally defined by the expression of oestrogen receptor (ER) alpha and/or progesterone receptors. In contrast to ERalpha, the clinical significance of the relatively recently identified ERbeta is still unclear. This study aimed to define the relationship between ERbeta and clinicopathological parameters in a mixed cohort of breast cancer and, furthermore, to investigate the impact of ERbeta expression on disease outcome. METHODS: The immunohistochemical expression of ERalpha and ERbeta was analysed in tissue microarrays containing a total number of 512 tumours with all incident breast cancers diagnosed at the Malmö University Hospital between 1988 and 1992. RESULTS: 78% of the tumours were ERalpha positive and 50% were ERbeta positive. ERbeta correlated positively with ERalpha (p = 0.001). In contrast to ERalpha, ERbeta was not associated with any important clinicopathological variables. Furthermore, no overall prognostic significance could be demonstrated for ERbeta. In the ERalpha-positive subgroup, however, a low expression of ERbeta correlated with a decreased disease-free survival in patients receiving endocrine treatment (p = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Although interrelated, ERalpha and ERbeta seem to be differentially associated to clinicopathological parameters, and this would support the fact that they might have different functions in vivo. Furthermore, ERbeta might be a predictive marker of response to endocrine therapy, although this needs to be confirmed in additional studies, preferably randomised trials.

Cyclin E confers a prognostic value in premenopausal breast cancer patients with tumours exhibiting an infiltrative growth pattern.

AIMS: To investigate the prognostic value of cyclin E in relation to tumour growth pattern by analysing stage II primary breast cancers from premenopausal women not subjected to any further adjuvant treatment. To analyse the value of cyclin E as a predictor of tamoxifen response, by comparing untreated and treated patients with oestrogen receptor positive tumours. METHODS: Breast cancer samples, assembled in tissue microarrays, were immunohistochemically stained for cyclin E and evaluated regarding the presence of nuclear staining. The overall growth characteristics of each tumour were assessed using whole tissue sections. RESULTS: Tumours displaying a pushing margin phenotype were strongly associated with high cyclin E levels, lymph node negative disease, a high histological grade and oestrogen receptor negativity, and exhibited a better prognosis compared to tumours with an infiltrative growth pattern. In the total cohort of non-treated patients (n = 187), cyclin E was not associated with recurrence free survival (RFS). However, when analysing the subgroup of tumours lacking a pushing growth pattern (n = 141), cyclin E was significantly associated with RFS, independent of histological grade and node status. There was no significant difference in tamoxifen response with regard to different cyclin E levels. CONCLUSION: The prognostic value of cyclin E in premenopausal breast cancer is limited to patients with breast carcinomas exhibiting an exclusively infiltrative growth pattern. This limitation could be explained by the presence of a small but distinct subgroup of cyclin E-high breast cancers with a pushing margin phenotype and a more favourable outcome.

Hypoxia and breast cancer: prognostic and therapeutic implications.

Hypoxia affects many important processes in tumour progression and is a key feature in the tumour microenvironment that needs to be taken into account when evaluating prognostics and therapeutic options for cancer patients. Hypoxia-regulating proteins, i.e. hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs), and associated gene products have been linked to certain tumour behaviours and might be useful as prognostic and predictive markers. Recently, hypoxia-driven gene products have been launched as novel cancer treatment targets with the potential to increase tumour-specific effects. Breast cancer consists of a multitude of different diseases with certain common characteristics, but also clearly disparate behaviours and genetic alterations. In this review we will summarise the role of hypoxia in breast cancer and specifically outline the importance of hypoxia and HIF-1alpha regarding prognostic and treatment-specific implications. (Part of a Multi-author Review).

Transcriptional upregulation and unmethylation of the promoter region of p16 in invasive basal cell carcinoma cells and partial co-localization with the gamma 2 chain of laminin-332.

Basal cell carcinoma cells show low proliferation rates at the invasive front and a concordant upregulation of the cdk-inhibitor p16, limiting proliferative capacity. Little is known about the mechanisms of p16 regulation in normal and malignant cells apart from that many transcription factors such as Ets1, Ets2, SP1, SP3, JunB and the polycomb protein Bmi1 have the potential to induce or repress p16 expression. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine how p16 is regulated in basal cell carcinoma with special focus on its upregulation in invasive cells. By analysing various microdissected areas of basal cell carcinoma using real-time quantitative PCR we observed upregulation of p16 mRNA in invasive tumour cells compared to centrally localized tumour cells. The methylation status of the p16 promoter, analysed by methylation-specific PCR, also showed diminished methylation in tumour cells at the invasive front, supporting the hypothesis that promoter methylation can affect the transcriptional activation of p16 in vivo. There was only sporadic co-localization of Ets, or ERK1/2 phosphorylation with p16 upregulation at the invasive front, suggesting that these factors were not directly involved in the regulation of p16. Furthermore, the gamma 2 chain of laminin-332 has been reported to be increased at the invasive front compared to the central areas of many tumours. Interestingly, in basal cell carcinoma we observed partial co-localization between p16 and the gamma 2 chain of laminin-332 in tumour cells towards areas of ulceration and in the majority of clearly infiltrative tumour cells but not in p16 positive tumour cells with a more pushing invasive growth pattern. These data suggest that concurrent p16 upregulation and decreased proliferation are more general phenomena in different types of invasive growth patterns in basal cell carcinomas and that these only partially overlap with the gamma 2 chain of laminin-332 associated invasion patterns.

Pathology parameters and adjuvant tamoxifen response in a randomised premenopausal breast cancer trial.

BACKGROUND: Subgroups of breast cancer that have an impaired response to endocrine treatment, despite hormone receptor positivity, are still poorly defined. Breast cancer can be subdivided according to standard pathological parameters including histological type, grade, and assessment of proliferation. These parameters are the net result of combinations of genetic alterations effecting tumour behaviour and could potentially reflect subtypes that respond differently to endocrine treatment. AIMS: To investigate the usefulness of these parameters as predictors of the response to tamoxifen in premenopausal women with breast cancer. MATERIALS/METHODS: Clinically established pathological parameters were assessed and related to the tamoxifen response in 500 available tumour specimens from 564 premenopausal patients with breast cancer randomised to either two years of tamoxifen or no treatment with 14 years of follow up. Proliferation was further evaluated by immunohistochemical Ki-67 expression. RESULTS: Oestrogen receptor positive ductal carcinomas responded as expected to tamoxifen, whereas the difference in recurrence free survival between control and tamoxifen treated patients was less apparent in the relatively few lobular carcinomas. For histological grade, there was no obvious difference in treatment response between the groups. The relation between proliferation and tamoxifen response seemed to be more complex, with a clear response in tumours with high and low proliferation, whereas tumours with intermediate proliferation defined by Ki-67 responded more poorly. CONCLUSIONS: Clinically established pathology parameters seem to mirror the endocrine treatment response and could potentially be valuable in future treatment decisions for patients with breast cancer.

Ki67 and p53 immunohistochemistry reduces interobserver variation in assessment of Barrett's oesophagus.

AIMS: To devise clinically applicable methods for assessing p53 and Ki67 immunohistochemical (IHC) reactivity in Barrett's oesophagus (BE) and to compare the interobserver agreement between these methods and routine haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) evaluation. METHODS AND RESULTS: One hundred and fifteen biopsies diagnosed as BE, selected from the files of the University Hospital MAS, Malmo, were re-evaluated for dysplasia by three pathologists. For IHC analysis areas with the most prominent positivity were evaluated. The mean of p53+ epithelial nuclei/high-power field (HPF) was obtained by counting between 1 and 5 HPFs/biopsy. A proliferation quotient (PQ) was obtained by dividing the number of Ki67+ epithelial nuclei in the upper half by the lower half of the mucosa, using two HPFs. Mean kappa values were 0.24, 0.71 and 0.52 for H&E, p53 and Ki67 evaluations, respectively. There was a correlation between increasing severity of dysplasia, IHC measurable overexpression of p53 and shift of the mucosal proliferation zone towards the surface, measured as PQ. CONCLUSIONS: The described methods for p53 and Ki67 evaluation are more reproducible than routine H&E evaluation of BE. Furthermore, the IHC methods correlate with the severity of dysplasia and are useful supplementary prognostic markers.

Cyclin D1 overexpression is a negative predictive factor for tamoxifen response in postmenopausal breast cancer patients.

Antioestrogen treatment by tamoxifen is a well-established adjuvant therapy for oestrogen receptor-alpha (ERalpha) positive breast cancer. Despite ERalpha expression some tumours do not respond to tamoxifen and we therefore delineated the potential link between the cell cycle regulator and ERalpha co-factor, cyclin D1, and tamoxifen response in a material of 167 postmenopausal breast cancers arranged in a tissue array. The patients had been randomised to 2 years of tamoxifen treatment or no treatment and the median follow-up time was 18 years. Interestingly in the 55 strongly ERalpha positive samples with moderate or low cyclin D1 levels, patients responded to tamoxifen treatment whereas the 46 patients with highly ERalpha positive and cyclin D1 overexpressing tumours did not show any difference in survival between tamoxifen and no treatment. Survival in untreated patients with cyclin D1 high tumours was slightly better than for patients with cyclin D1 low/moderate tumours. However, there was a clearly increased risk of death in the cyclin D1 high group compared to an age-matched control population. Our results suggest that cyclin D1 overexpression predicts for tamoxifen treatment resistance in breast cancer, which is line with recent experimental data using breast cancer cell lines and overexpression systems.

Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor protein in human renal cell carcinoma.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF, one of the most important angiogenetic factors) in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) by analysing many RCCs for the expression of immunohistochemical (IHC) VEGF-staining related to clinicopathological findings and survival. PATIENTS AND METHODS: VEGF immunostaining was examined with the tissue microarray (TMA) method on tumour samples from 229 patients and validated in 71 by ordinary tissue sections (TS). IHC VEGF expression was quantified by estimating the volume density and staining intensity on a three-grade scale. RESULTS: In most RCCs there was VEGF staining in the cell cytoplasm and membrane. In cell membranes the VEGF expression declined with storage time. IHC VEGF expression analysed by TMA and TS gave corresponding results. There was no difference in VEGF expression among conventional, papillary and chromophobe RCCs. There were significant correlations between VEGF expression and tumour size and stage. In univariate analysis VEGF expression correlated with survival, especially in conventional RCCs; this prognostic information was lost in multivariate analysis. The VEGF staining intensity correlated only with VEGF expression but not with any clinicopathological factors. CONCLUSIONS: VEGF protein was present in most RCC cells. There was no difference in VEGF expression among the different RCC types. The correlation between VEGF expression and tumour stage and with prognosis indicates the significance of VEGF within tumour growth and progression in RCC.

Tissue microarray analyses of G1/S-regulatory proteins in ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast indicate that low cyclin D1 is associated with local recurrence.

Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) of the breast constitutes about 10% of all diagnosed breast cancers and, despite surgical removal, it may recur, either as DCIS or invasive breast cancer. Nuclear grade and growth pattern according to Andersen et al as well as surgical margins are factors that have been used to predict local recurrence, but ideally a set of tumour-specific factors should be identified and used as prognostic markers. Many cell cycle regulatory gene products have been shown to be involved in the formation of tumours and are either oncogenes or suppressor genes and involved in key processes in the transformation. We therefore characterised the cell cycle regulators cyclin E, cyclin D1, p27 and p16 in a material of DCIS cases arranged in a tissue microarray. With a manual tissue arrayer, 52% of the initial 177 DCIS samples were successfully targeted allowing immunohistochemical analyses of all four proteins in 92 cases of DCIS. As also observed in invasive breast cancer, there was a trend indicating that DCIS cases with high cyclin D1 were cyclin E low and oestrogen receptor-positive, whereas cyclin E high DCIS cases were cyclin D1 low and oestrogen receptor-negative. For the 64 patients that did not receive postoperative radiotherapy, there were 16 local recurrences (eight DCIS and eight invasive breast cancer) during a mean follow-up time of 63 months. Cyclin E, p27 or p16 were not associated with local recurrence, but interestingly cyclin D1 was significantly and inversely associated with local recurrence, both using univariate and multivariate analyses. In summary, using a tissue array approach we have shown that cyclin D1, besides growth pattern, is a prognostic marker for local recurrence in DCIS.

Expression of cyclin D1, D3, E, and p27 in human renal cell carcinoma analysed by tissue microarray.

Aberrations in the G1/S transition of the cell cycle have been observed in many malignancies and seem to be critical in the transformation process. Few studies have delineated the presence of G1/S regulatory defects and their clinical relevance in renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Therefore, we have examined the protein contents of cyclin D1, D3, E, and p27 in 218 RCCs, using tissue microarray and immunohistochemistry. The results from a subset of tumours were confirmed by Western blotting and immunohistochemical staining of regular tissue sections. Interestingly, low protein contents of cyclin D1 and p27 were associated with high nuclear grade, large tumour size, and poor prognosis for patients with conventional tumours. We further observed substantial differences in the pattern of G1/S regulatory defects between the different RCC subtypes. The majority of both conventional and papillary cases expressed p27; however, chromophobe tumours generally lacked p27 staining. In addition, conventional RCCs often expressed high cyclin D1 protein levels, while papillary RCCs exhibited high cyclin E. In summary, we have shown that G1/S regulatory defects are present in RCC and are associated with clinico-pathological parameters. The pattern of cell cycle regulatory defects also differed between RCC subtypes.