Relationship of causative organism and time to infection among children with cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection.

OBJECTIVE: Infection is a common complication of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunts, occurring in 6%-20% of children. Although studies are limited, Staphylococcus aureus is thought to cause more rapid and aggressive infection than coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CONS) or gram-negative organisms. The authors' objective was to evaluate the relationship between the causative organisms of CSF shunt infection and the timing of infection. METHODS: The authors performed a retrospective cohort study of children who underwent CSF shunt placement at a tertiary care children's hospital over a 9-year period and subsequently developed a CSF shunt infection. The primary predictor variable was the causative organism recovered from CSF culture, characterized as S. aureus, CONS, or gram-negative organisms. The primary outcome was time to infection, defined as the number of days from most recent shunt intervention to the diagnosis of the infection. The association between causative organism and time to infection was visualized using Kaplan-Meier curves, and statistical comparisons were made using nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis tests. RESULTS: Among 103 children in whom a CSF shunt infection developed, the causative organism was CONS in 57 (55%), S. aureus in 19 (18%), and gram-negative organisms in 9 (9%). The median time to infection did not differ (p = 0.81) for infections caused by CONS (20 days, IQR 11-40), S. aureus (26 days, IQR 12-95), and gram-negative organisms (23 days, IQR 17-34). CONCLUSIONS: No significant difference in time to infection based on the causative organism was observed among children with a CSF shunt infection.

Reinfection rates following adherence to Infectious Diseases Society of America guideline recommendations in first cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection treatment.

OBJECTIVECSF shunt infection treatment requires both surgical and antibiotic decisions. Using the Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network (HCRN) Registry and 2004 Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines that were not proactively distributed to HCRN providers, the authors previously found high adherence to surgical recommendations but poor adherence to intravenous (IV) antibiotic duration recommendations. In general, IV antibiotic duration was longer than recommended. In March 2017, new IDSA guidelines expanded upon the 2004 guidelines by including recommendations for selection of specific antibiotics. The objective of this study was to describe adherence to both 2004 and 2017 IDSA guideline recommendations for CSF shunt infection treatment, and to report reinfection rates associated with adherence to guideline recommendations.METHODSThe authors investigated a prospective cohort of children younger than 18 years of age who underwent treatment for first CSF shunt infection at one of 7 hospitals from April 2008 to December 2012. CSF shunt infection was diagnosed by recovery of bacteria from CSF culture (CSF-positive infection). Adherence to 2004 and 2017 guideline recommendations was determined. Adherence to antibiotics was further classified as longer or shorter duration than guideline recommendations. Reinfection rates with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were generated.RESULTSThere were 133 children with CSF-positive infections addressed by 2004 IDSA guideline recommendations, with 124 at risk for reinfection. Zero reinfections were observed among those whose treatment was fully adherent (0/14, 0% [95% CI 0%-20%]), and 15 reinfections were observed among those whose infection treatment was nonadherent (15/110, 14% [95% CI 8%-21%]). Among the 110 first infections whose infection treatment was nonadherent, 74 first infections were treated for a longer duration than guidelines recommended and 9 developed reinfection (9/74, 12% [95% CI 6%-22%]). There were 145 children with CSF-positive infections addressed by 2017 IDSA guideline recommendations, with 135 at risk for reinfection. No reinfections were observed among children whose treatment was fully adherent (0/3, 0% [95% CI 0%-64%]), and 18 reinfections were observed among those whose infection treatment was nonadherent (18/132, 14% [95% CI 8%-21%]).CONCLUSIONSThere is no clear evidence that either adherence to IDSA guidelines or duration of treatment longer than recommended is associated with reduction in reinfection rates. Because IDSA guidelines recommend shorter IV antibiotic durations than are typically used, improvement efforts to reduce IV antibiotic use in CSF shunt infection treatment can and should utilize IDSA guidelines.

Patient and Treatment Characteristics by Infecting Organism in Cerebrospinal Fluid Shunt Infection.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt infection treatment have been limited in size and unable to compare patient and treatment characteristics by infecting organism. Our objective was to describe variation in patient and treatment characteristics for children with first CSF shunt infection, stratified by infecting organism subgroups outlined in the 2017 Infectious Disease Society of America's (IDSA) guidelines. METHODS: We studied a prospective cohort of children <18 years of age undergoing treatment for first CSF shunt infection at one of 7 Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network hospitals from April 2008 to December 2012. Differences between infecting organism subgroups were described using univariate analyses and Fisher's exact tests. RESULTS: There were 145 children whose infections were diagnosed by CSF culture and addressed by IDSA guidelines, including 47 with Staphylococcus aureus, 52 with coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, 37 with Gram-negative bacilli, and 9 with Propionibacterium acnes. No differences in many patient and treatment characteristics were seen between infecting organism subgroups, including age at initial shunt, gender, race, insurance, indication for shunt, gastrostomy, tracheostomy, ultrasound, and/or endoscope use at all surgeries before infection, or numbers of revisions before infection. A larger proportion of infections were caused by Gram-negative bacilli when antibiotic-impregnated catheters were used at initial shunt placement (12 of 23, 52%) and/or subsequent revisions (11 of 23, 48%) compared with all other infections (9 of 68 [13%] and 13 of 68 [19%], respectively). No differences in reinfection were observed between infecting organism subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: The organism profile encountered at infection differs when antibiotic-impregnated catheters are used, with a higher proportion of Gram-negative bacilli. This warrants further investigation given increasing adoption of antibiotic-impregnated catheters.

Reinfection after treatment of first cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection: a prospective observational cohort study.

OBJECTIVE CSF shunt infection requires both surgical and antibiotic treatment. Surgical treatment includes either total shunt removal with external ventricular drain (EVD) placement followed by new shunt insertion, or distal shunt externalization followed by new shunt insertion once the CSF is sterile. Antibiotic treatment includes the administration of intravenous antibiotics. The Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network (HCRN) registry provides a unique opportunity to understand reinfection following treatment for CSF shunt infection. This study examines the association of surgical and antibiotic decisions in the treatment of first CSF shunt infection with reinfection. METHODS A prospective cohort study of children undergoing treatment for first CSF infection at 7 HCRN hospitals from April 2008 to December 2012 was performed. The HCRN consensus definition was used to define CSF shunt infection and reinfection. The key surgical predictor variable was surgical approach to treatment for CSF shunt infection, and the key antibiotic treatment predictor variable was intravenous antibiotic selection and duration. Cox proportional hazards models were constructed to address the time-varying nature of the characteristics associated with shunt surgeries. RESULTS Of 233 children in the HCRN registry with an initial CSF shunt infection during the study period, 38 patients (16%) developed reinfection over a median time of 44 days (interquartile range [IQR] 19-437). The majority of initial CSF shunt infections were treated with total shunt removal and EVD placement (175 patients; 75%). The median time between infection surgeries was 15 days (IQR 10-22). For the subset of 172 infections diagnosed by CSF culture, the mean ± SD duration of antibiotic treatment was 18.7 ± 12.8 days. In all Cox proportional hazards models, neither surgical approach to infection treatment nor overall intravenous antibiotic duration was independently associated with reinfection. The only treatment decision independently associated with decreased infection risk was the use of rifampin. While this finding did not achieve statistical significance, in all 5 Cox proportional hazards models both surgical approach (other than total shunt removal at initial CSF shunt infection) and nonventriculoperitoneal shunt location were consistently associated with a higher hazard of reinfection, while the use of ultrasound was consistently associated with a lower hazard of reinfection. CONCLUSIONS Neither surgical approach to treatment nor antibiotic duration was associated with reinfection risk. While these findings did not achieve statistical significance, surgical approach other than total removal at initial CSF shunt infection was consistently associated with a higher hazard of reinfection in this study and suggests the feasibility of controlling and standardizing the surgical approach (shunt removal with EVD placement). Considerably more variation and equipoise exists in the duration and selection of intravenous antibiotic treatment. Further consideration should be given to the use of rifampin in the treatment of CSF shunt infection. High-quality studies of the optimal duration of antibiotic treatment are critical to the creation of evidence-based guidelines for CSF shunt infection treatment.

Variability in Management of First Cerebrospinal Fluid Shunt Infection: A Prospective Multi-Institutional Observational Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the variation in approaches to surgical and antibiotic treatment for first cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt infection and adherence to Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a prospective cohort study of children undergoing treatment for first CSF infection at 7 Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network hospitals from April 2008 through December 2012. Univariate analyses were performed to describe the study population. RESULTS: A total of 151 children underwent treatment for first CSF shunt-related infection. Most children had undergone initial CSF shunt placement before the age of 6 months (n = 98, 65%). Median time to infection after shunt surgery was 28 days (IQR 15-52 days). Surgical management was most often shunt removal with interim external ventricular drain placement, followed by new shunt insertion (n = 122, 81%). Median time from first negative CSF culture to final surgical procedure was 14 days (IQR 10-21 days). Median duration of intravenous (IV) antibiotic use duration was 19 days (IQR 12-28 days). For 84 infections addressed by IDSA guidelines, 7 (8%) met guidelines and 61 (73%) had longer duration of IV antibiotic use than recommended. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical treatment for infection frequently adheres to IDSA guidelines of shunt removal with external ventricular drain placement followed by new shunt insertion. However, duration of IV antibiotic use in CSF shunt infection treatment was consistently longer than recommended by the 2004 IDSA guidelines.

Risk factors for first cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection: findings from a multi-center prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the extent to which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt revisions are associated with increased risk of CSF shunt infection, after adjusting for patient factors that may contribute to infection risk. STUDY DESIGN: We used the Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network registry to assemble a large prospective 6-center cohort of 1036 children undergoing initial CSF shunt placement between April 2008 and January 2012. The primary outcome of interest was first CSF shunt infection. Data for initial CSF shunt placement and all subsequent CSF shunt revisions prior to first CSF shunt infection, where applicable, were obtained. The risk of first infection was estimated using a multivariable Cox proportional hazard model accounting for patient characteristics and CSF shunt revisions, and is reported using hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% CI. RESULTS: Of the 102 children who developed first infection within 12 months of placement, 33 (32%) followed one or more CSF shunt revisions. Baseline factors independently associated with risk of first infection included: gastrostomy tube (HR 2.0, 95% CI, 1.1, 3.3), age 6-12 months (HR 0.3, 95% CI, 0.1, 0.8), and prior neurosurgery (HR 0.4, 95% CI, 0.2, 0.9). After controlling for baseline factors, infection risk was most significantly associated with the need for revision (1 revision vs none, HR 3.9, 95% CI, 2.2, 6.5; ≥2 revisions, HR 13.0, 95% CI, 6.5, 24.9). CONCLUSIONS: This study quantifies the elevated risk of infection associated with shunt revisions observed in clinical practice. To reduce risk of infection risk, further work should optimize revision procedures.

Few Patient, Treatment, and Diagnostic or Microbiological Factors, Except Complications and Intermittent Negative Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Cultures During First CSF Shunt Infection, Are Associated With Reinfection.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between first and subsequent cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt infections is poorly understood. By understanding the factors associated with increased risk of reinfection, researchers may provide optimal treatment strategies at the time of first infection. The objective of this study was to describe and compare children with and without CSF shunt reinfection. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed among 118 children who underwent initial CSF shunt placement and developed first CSF shunt infection. The primary outcome variable was CSF shunt reinfection. Patient risk factors and medical and surgical management of initial CSF shunt placement and first CSF shunt infection were compared between children with and without reinfection. RESULTS: Of 118 children with first infection, 31 (26%) developed a reinfection during the study period (overall median follow-up, 2096 days). Factors associated with reinfection in this cohort included ventriculoatrial or complex shunt at initial CSF shunt placement, complications after first CSF shunt infection, and intermittent negative CSF cultures. CONCLUSIONS: Few patient or treatment factors were associated with reinfection. Factors associated with difficult-to-treat first CSF shunt infection, including complications after first CSF shunt infection and intermittent negative CSF cultures, were associated with reinfection. Clinicians who treat patients with unusual CSF shunts or more difficult first infections should have a high index of suspicion for reinfection after treatment is completed.

Revision surgeries are associated with significant increased risk of subsequent cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection.

BACKGROUND: The object of this study was to determine whether cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt revision(s) are associated with increased risk of CSF shunt infection, after adjusting for baseline factors that contribute to infection risk. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of 579 children aged 0-18 years who underwent initial CSF shunt placement between January 01, 1997 and October 12, 2006 at a tertiary care children's hospital. The outcome of interest was CSF shunt infection. Data for all subsequent CSF shunt revisions leading up to and including the initial CSF shunt infection, when applicable, were obtained. The likelihood of infection was determined using a Cox proportional hazard model accounting for patient characteristics and CSF shunt revisions, and is reported using hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: There were 123 children who developed infection. Baseline factors independently associated with hazard of infection included age 0 to <6 months at CSF shunt placement (HR 2.4, 95% CI: 1.02-6.7) and myelomeningocele (HR 0.4, 95% CI: 0.2-0.8). Controlling for baseline factors, the risk of infection after shunt revision was significantly greater than at the time of initial placement (HR 3.0, 95% CI: 1.9-4.7), and this risk increased as numbers of revisions increased (≥2 revisions HR 6.5, 95% CI: 3.6-11.4). CONCLUSIONS: Although younger age is associated with increased hazard of infection, subsequent CSF shunt revision significantly increases infection risk.

Association of intraventricular hemorrhage secondary to prematurity with cerebrospinal fluid shunt surgery in the first year following initial shunt placement.

OBJECT: The neurosurgical literature has conflicting findings regarding the association between indications for CSF shunt placement and subsequent shunt surgery. The object of this study was to identify baseline factors at the time of initial CSF shunt placement that are independently associated with subsequent surgery. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of children ages 0-18 years who underwent initial CSF shunt placement between January 1, 1997, and October 12, 2006, at a tertiary care children's hospital. The outcome of interest was CSF shunt surgery (either for revision or infection) within 12 months after initial placement. Associations between subsequent CSF shunt surgery and indication for the initial shunt, adjusting for patient age and surgeon factors at the time of initial placement, were estimated using multivariate logistic regression. Medical and surgical decisions, which varied according to surgeon, were examined separately in a univariate analysis. RESULTS: Of the 554 children in the study cohort, 233 (42%) underwent subsequent CSF shunt surgery, either for revision (167 patients [30%]) or infection (66 patients [12%]). In multivariate logistic regression modeling, significant risk factors for subsequent CSF shunt surgery included (compared with aqueductal stenosis) intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) secondary to prematurity (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 2.2, 95% CI 1.1-4.5) and other unusual indications (AOR 3.7, 95% CI 1.0-13.6). The patient's age at initial CSF shunt placement was not significantly associated with increased odds of subsequent surgery after adjusting for other associated factors. CONCLUSIONS: The occurrence of IVH is associated with increased odds of subsequent CSF shunt surgery within 12 months after shunt placement. Families of and care providers for children with IVH should be attuned to their increased risk of shunt failure.

Children's thinking about diversity of belief in the early school years: judgments of relativism, tolerance, and disagreeing persons.

Children's thinking about diversity of belief in 4 realms--morality, taste, facts, and ambiguous facts--was examined. Ninety-six participants (ages 5, 7, and 9) were interviewed about beliefs different from their own that were endorsed by characters with different status; their judgments of relativism, tolerance, and disagreeing persons were assessed. Five-year-olds made fewer relative and tolerant judgments than 7- and 9-year-olds. Nevertheless, participants of all ages organized their judgments according to the realm of diversity, thought that some beliefs are relative and some are nonrelative, and made tolerant judgments of some divergent beliefs (and their proponents) but not of others. The findings suggest that, in the early school years, children have multiple and well-differentiated perspectives on belief diversity.