Prolonged effect of a new O-glycoPEGylated FVIII (N8-GP) in a murine saphenous vein bleeding model.

Prophylaxis in severe haemophilia significantly increases health-related quality of life for patients, but the dosing frequency still constitutes a challenge. Thus, there is a need for new treatment options, utilizing compounds with longer duration of action, while still maintaining potency. The objective of this study was to evaluate the acute and prolonged effects of a new glycoPEGylated recombinant factor VIII (rFVIII) (N8-GP) in a venous bleeding model in haemophilia A mice and to compare the efficacy and potency to turoctocog alfa (rFVIII). Following intravenous administration of turoctocog alfa or N8-GP to normal and FVIII-deficient mice, bleeding time and blood loss from a saphenous vein incision were evaluated in an acute dose-response study and a duration of action study. In the acute setting, N8-GP dose dependently reduced the number and duration of bleeding episodes as well as blood loss compared to FVIII-deficient mice, reaching statistical significance at doses as low as 5-10 U kg(-1) . In the duration of action study, a significantly prolonged and maintained effect of N8-GP was found for up to 48 h after dosing, whereas the effect of rFVIII was no longer present for any end-points 24 h after dosing. Seventy-two hours after dosing, no significant effect of either compound was found. This study shows a prolonged haemostatic effect of N8-GP compared to rFVIII supporting other recent studies that N8-GP may hold a potential to increase the quality of life for patients with haemophilia A by reducing dosing frequency.

A sensitive venous bleeding model in haemophilia A mice: effects of two recombinant FVIII products (N8 and Advate(®)).

Haemostatic effect of compounds for treating haemophilia can be evaluated in various bleeding models in haemophilic mice. However, the doses of factor VIII (FVIII) for normalizing bleeding used in some of these models are reported to be relatively high. The aim of this study was to establish a sensitive venous bleeding model in FVIII knock out (F8-KO) mice, with the ability to detect effect on bleeding at low plasma FVIII concentrations. We studied the effect of two recombinant FVIII products, N8 and Advate(®), after injury to the saphenous vein. We found that F8-KO mice treated with increasing doses of either N8 or Advate(®) showed a dose-dependent increase in the number of clot formations and a reduction in both average and maximum bleeding time, as well as in average blood loss. For both compounds, significant effect was found at doses as low as 5 IU kg(-1) when compared with vehicle-treated F8-KO mice. Normalization of maximum bleeding time was found at doses equal to or above 10 IU kg(-1) N8 or Advate(®), corresponding to plasma concentrations of approximately 10% of the level in wild type mice. The present study adds a new model to the armamentarium of bleeding models used for evaluation of pro-coagulant compounds for treatment of haemophilia. Interestingly, the vena saphena model proved to be sensitive towards FVIII in plasma levels that approach the levels preventing bleeding in haemophilia patients, and may, thus, in particular be valuable for testing of new long-acting variants of e.g. FVIII that are intended for prophylaxis.

Recombinant factor VIIa reduces bleeding after blunt liver injury in coagulopathic, hypofibrinogenaemic pigs.

BACKGROUND: Recombinant factor VIIa (rFVIIa) has been successfully used in various clinical conditions to treat severe coagulopathy, but its efficacy may be affected by the underlying conditions. We therefore investigated the efficacy of rFVIIa treatment under conditions of hypofibrinogenaemia in a pig model of blunt liver injury. METHODS: Severe haemodilution was instigated in four groups of seven anaesthetized pigs. Before inflicting liver injury, animals were assigned to receive either 70 mg kg(-1) fibrinogen (fibrinogen group) or placebo (control group). Thirty seconds after injury, rFVIIa (180 µg kg(-1)) (rFVIIa and fibrinogen+rFVIIa groups) or vehicle (control and fibrinogen groups) was administered. Haemodynamic variables, coagulation parameters, and blood loss were monitored for 2 h. Histology was examined to evaluate the presence of thrombi and the consistency of liver injury. RESULTS: At the end of the observation period, total blood loss [median (range)] decreased in all intervention groups [fibrinogen: 1275 (1221-1439) ml, P=0.036; rFVIIa: 966 (923-1136) ml, P=0.008; fibrinogen+rFVIIa: 678 (475-756) ml, P=0.008] when compared with control animals [blood loss: 1752 (1735-2221) ml]. The mortality rate in the control group was 100%, whereas only 42% of fibrinogen-substituted animals died (P=0.023). All animals treated with rFVIIa or fibrinogen+rFVIIa (P<0.001) survived and no signs of thromboembolism were observed. CONCLUSIONS: rFVIIa under conditions of hypofibrinogenaemia exhibited a positive impact on coagulation parameters and a reduction in blood loss. These effects were significantly improved after prior substitution with fibrinogen.

Effects of a recombinant FVIIa analogue, NN1731, on blood loss and survival after liver trauma in the pig.

BACKGROUND: We considered whether haemorrhage after a liver trauma would be reduced by early administration of a pro-haemostatic agent and evaluated the effect of i.v. vs i.m. administration of the coagulation factor VIIa analogue NN1731 on haemorrhage after a liver trauma in the pig. METHODS: The pharmacokinetics of i.v. and i.m. NN1731 was evaluated in eight minipigs, and the effects of dose and administration route of NN1731 (i.v. 180 microg kg(-1), n=6; i.m. 540 microg kg(-1), n=4, or 2000 microg kg(-1), n=6) vs vehicle (n=16) were studied on a liver laceration injury in pigs. To simulate a pre-hospital setting, the administration of NN1731 was delayed by 1 min for i.m. administration and 7 min for i.v. administration, at which time fluid resuscitation also began. RESULTS: In the minipigs, NN1731 exposure was similar after i.v. 180 microg kg(-1) and i.m. 540 microg kg(-1), with a bioavailability of approximately 35%. The injury and blood loss at 7 min was comparable between the four groups of pigs; however, after 60 min, the blood loss was lower in the i.v. treated animals: 1.3 (0.3) (i.v.) vs 2.2 (0.8) litres (i.m.(540), i.m.(2000), and vehicle) (P<0.001). Also, the survival time was increased: 117 (14) (i.v.) vs 84 (28) min (i.m.(540), i.m.(2000), and vehicle) (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: After a liver trauma in the pig, i.v. administration of NN1731 reduced the bleeding and increased the survival time. In contrast, i.m. administration had no effect, presumably because reduced muscle perfusion during haemorrhage reduced the uptake of NN1731.

Faster onset of effect and greater efficacy of NN1731 compared with rFVIIa, aPCC and FVIII in tail bleeding in hemophilic mice.

BACKGROUND: Recombinant factor VIIa (rFVIIa, Novoseven) is currently used to control bleeding in hemophiliacs with inhibitors. A new rFVIIa variant, NN1731, with increased activity on the surface of activated platelets, has demonstrated a more potent and faster onset of reactivity than rFVIIa in various in vitro models. The present study aimed to investigate whether this translates into greater efficacy and faster promotion of hemostasis in vivo. METHOD AND RESULTS: In a severe tail-bleeding model in hemophilia A mice, NN1731 demonstrated significantly greater efficacy than rFVIIa, plasma-derived activated prothrombin complex concentrate (pd-aPCC, FEIBA or FVIII (Refacto). Assessment of the blood loss over time showed that NN1731 significantly and dose-dependently reduced the blood loss in the first 5-min observation period, whereas the effect of rFVIIa, FVIII and pd-aPCC first became evident 5-10 min after injury. CONCLUSION: This study shows that NN1731 has a greater efficacy and faster resolution of bleeding in a severe bleeding model in hemophilia A mice compared with any of the other agents tested.

rFVIIa and a new enhanced rFVIIa-analogue, NN1731, reduce bleeding in clopidogrel-treated and in thrombocytopenic rats.

BACKGROUND: The pharmacological effect of rFVIIa occurs at the surface of activated platelets by enhancing thrombin generation at the site of vascular damage. It is therefore important to study the effects of rFVIIa in platelet-related bleeding situations. We examined the effect of rFVIIa and an rFVIIa-analogue, NN1731, on clopidogrel-induced and thrombocytopenic bleeding in rats. METHODS AND RESULTS: Clopidogrel [10 mg kg(-1); per oral (p.o.)] severely inhibited platelet aggregation and increased blood loss after tail-transection four hours after administration. Treatment with rFVIIa (5, 10, 20 mg kg(-1)) or NN1731 (1, 5, 10 mg kg(-1)), administered five minutes after induction of bleeding, reduced blood loss significantly and dose-dependently. NN1731 had an increased hemostatic potential compared with rFVIIa, reducing blood loss to the control level, whereas this was not even achieved with the highest dose of rFVIIa. Antibody-induced thrombocytopenia reduced platelet numbers by more than 90% and increased the blood loss after tail-transection. Treatment with 10 and 20 mg kg(-1) rFVIIa significantly reduced blood loss, whereas 10 mg kg(-1) NN1731 reduced the bleeding to control levels. CONCLUSIONS: The hemostatic effect of rFVIIa and NN1731 was demonstrated in thrombocytopenic and clopidogrel-treated rats, showing efficacy in situations with decreased platelet number or functionality. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that rFVIIa/NN1731 contribute to hemostasis by thrombin generation even in situations with platelet disorders. Furthermore, NN1731 demonstrated a higher hemostatic potential than rFVIIa.

Initial administration of hydroxyethyl starch vs lactated Ringer after liver trauma in the pig.

BACKGROUND: This study tested the circulatory effectiveness of post-trauma administration of a large intravascular volume expander, hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.4 (HES), vs standard lactated Ringer's solution (RL). METHODS: Liver injury was inflicted in 14 pigs [31 (4) kg; mean (sd)] and treatment simulated an acute pre-hospital event: after a standard first-respond delay (7 min), volume administration was provided in three phases to simulate increasing intravascular access. In the first two phases, the fluid was administered either by HES or by RL and, during the last phase, all animals received HES to stabilize the intravascular volume. RESULTS: The liver trauma severed an equal number of 1-3 mm diameter blood vessels [1.4 (0.6)] and after 7 min, the blood loss was 184 (127) ml and mean arterial pressure had decreased by 19 (13) mm Hg (P<0.01). The intravascular volume expansion effect was 115 (25)% for HES and 76 (21)% for RL (P<0.05), yet oxygen uptake was maintained in zero of seven vs three of seven pigs and the survival was three of seven vs seven of seven, respectively (P<0.05). In these animals, the initial administration of HES provoked uncontrolled bleeding, whereas the administration of RL was associated with attenuated bleeding: total blood loss 2455 (1919) vs 311 (208) ml, respectively (P<0.01), reflecting that bleeding ceased in six of the pigs administered RL. CONCLUSIONS: After injury, the intravascular volume expanding effect of HES was larger than that for RL. However, initial administration of HES provoked uncontrolled haemorrhage, suggesting that prioritizing intravascular volume expansion did not result in stabilization of the circulation after haemorrhage.

Investigation of first mirror heating for the collective Thomson scattering diagnostic in ITER.

Collective Thomson scattering (CTS) has the capabilities to measure phase space densities of fast ion populations in ITER resolved in configuration space, in velocity space, and in time. In the CTS system proposed for ITER, probing radiation at 60 GHz generated by two 1 MW gyrotrons is scattered in the plasma and collected by arrays of receivers. The transmission lines from the gyrotrons to the plasma and from the plasma to the receivers contain several quasioptical mirrors among other components. These are designed to produce astigmatic beam patterns in the plasma where the beam shapes will have a direct impact on the signal strength of the diagnostic, the spatial resolution, and the robustness of probe and receiver beam overlap against density excursions. The first mirror has a line of sight to the plasma and is thus exposed to severe neutron streaming. The present neutronics and thermomechanical modeling of a first mirror on the high field side indicates that the mirror curvature may warp due to heating. This may alter the beam quality, and therefore, thermal effects have to be accounted for during the design of the mirror. The modeling further demonstrates that thin mirrors are superior to thick mirrors from a thermomechanical point of view.

Effect of haemodilution, acidosis, and hypothermia on the activity of recombinant factor VIIa (NovoSeven).

BACKGROUND: A range of plasma volume expanders is used clinically, often in settings where haemostasis may already be impaired. The haemostatic agent, recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa, NovoSeven), may be used to improve haemostasis but potential interactions with different volume expanders are poorly understood. METHODS: Clot formation was measured by thromboelastography (TEG) using blood from healthy volunteers. In vitro effects of rFVIIa with haemodilution, acidosis, and hypothermia were examined. Conditions were induced by dilution with NaCl (0.9%), lactated Ringer's solution, albumin 5%, or hydroxyethyl starch (HES) solutions [MW (molecular weight) 130-670 kDa]; by adjusting pH to 6.8 with 1 M HEPES (N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'-2-ethanesulphonic acid) buffer; or by reducing temperature to 32 degrees C. We also studied the effect of low vs high MW HES (MW 200 vs 600 kDa) and rFVIIa on in vivo bleeding time (BT) in rabbits. RESULTS: Haemodilution progressively altered TEG parameters. rFVIIa improved TEG parameters in the presence of acidosis, hypothermia or 20% haemodilution (P<0.05). At 40% haemodilution, the rFVIIa effect was diminished particularly with high MW HES. In vivo, rFVIIa shortened the BT (P<0.05) with low but not high MW HES. CONCLUSIONS: Efficacy of rFVIIa was affected by the degree of haemodilution and type of volume expander, but not by acidosis or hypothermia.

Recombinant human factor VIIa and a factor VIIa-analogue reduces heparin and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH)-induced bleeding in rats.

BACKGROUND: Heparin and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) are widely used for prevention and treatment of thromboemobolic events, but may occasionally cause uncontrollable bleeding. Heparin can readily be antagonized with protamine, but this is less effective against LMWH. OBJECTIVES: To test the effects of rFVIIa or an analogue of rFVIIa, NN1731, on heparin- and LMWH-induced bleeding in rats. METHODS: Initially the doses of heparin and tinzaparin (a LMWH) were determined by dose-titration. Following pretreatment with heparin or tinzaparin in rats, tail-transection was performed, and the effect of rFVIIa and NN1731 on the bleeding was observed. RESULTS: rFVIIa (5, 10 and 20 mg kg(-1)) reduced bleeding time and blood loss caused by heparin- and tinzaparin-induced bleeding, using doses of 200 IU kg(-1) (n = 8) and 500 IU kg(-1) (n = 9), respectively. Similarly, 10 mg kg(-1) NN1731 significantly reduced both heparin- and tinzaparin-induced bleeding to the normal level. Following severe anticoagulation with 1800 IU kg(-1) tinzaparin, 10 mg kg(-1) NN1731 reduced and normalized the bleeding, while the effect of 20 mg kg(-1) rFVIIa failed to reach statistical significance. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that rFVIIa/NN1731 are capable of generating sufficient thrombin locally on the surface of activated platelets to induce hemostasis in the presence of heparin/LMWH. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that rFVIIa and NN1731 may have the potential to control bleedings caused by heparin or LMWH.

Morphine reduces spinal c-fos expression dose-dependently during experimental laparotomy in pigs: a combined pharmacokinetic and surgical study.

The pharmacokinetics of intravenous morphine 2.5mg/kg (n=4) and 10mg/kg (n=4) in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of pigs was studied. Plasma half-life was 1.0+/-0.1h and the main metabolite was morphine-3-glucuronide, whereas morphine-6-glucuronide was negligible. CSF morphine concentration peaked after 20-30min (2.5mg/kg) and 60-120min (10mg/kg), and elimination half-life was 3.5+/-0.3h. Subsequently, the effect of morphine on surgery-induced spinal nociception in pigs subjected to unilateral laparotomy was evaluated by stereological quantification of the total number of Fos-like-immunoreactive (Fos-LI) spinal neurons of the dorsal horn. Surgery (n=4) induced 91,680+/-14,974 Fos-LI neurons ipsilaterally and morphine reduced this number to 45,771+/-8755 following the 2.5mg/kg dose (p<0.01; n=6) and 14,981+/-2327 following the 10mg/kg dose (p<0.001; n=6). These results indicate that morphine dose-dependently reduces the number of surgery-induced Fos-LI neurons in the spinal cord. As even a high dose of morphine does not reduce spinal c-fos expression to basal level, it may be appropriate to use other analgesics simultaneously with morphine during surgery.

Local anaesthetics attenuates spinal nociception and HPA-axis activation during experimental laparotomy in pigs.

The effect of local anaesthetics on spinal nociception and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis) was examined in a porcine model of abdominal surgery. A standardised laparotomy without visceral involvement was performed on 24 pigs. One group received a unilateral infiltration of mixed lidocaine and bupivacaine in skin, muscle and peritoneum of the surgical area prior to surgery (n=12), while local anaesthetics were replaced by isotonic saline in a second group (n=12). A sham group was subjected to anaesthesia (n=8), but did not undergo surgery. Two hours after surgery, half of the pigs from each group were perfused with formalin and the spinal cord was taken out for stereological quantification of the total number of Fos-like-immunoreactive (Fos-LI) neurones in the dorsal horn. Surgery with saline gave rise to a significant increase in the number of Fos-LI neurones ipsilaterally (107,001+/-16,548; p<0.001) as well as contralaterally (12,766+/-3,842; p<0.01) compared to the sham group. In animals undergoing surgery with LA, the number of Fos-LI neurones ipsilaterally was not significantly different from the sham group (p=0.78), and was reduced significantly both ipsilaterally (6960+/-1662; p<0.001) and contralaterally (3974+/-1131; p<0.05) compared to the saline group. In the other half of each group, blood samples, for determination of ACTH, cortisol, C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 concentrations, were drawn prior to and at predetermined time-points during and after surgery. Surgery with saline gave rise to dramatic increases in plasma ACTH and cortisol (p<0.01 and p<0.001, respectively) within 15 min of incision. In contrast, no changes from the initial concentrations of ACTH and cortisol were observed in pigs receiving local anaesthetics. No changes in plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein or interleukin-6 were observed in either of the groups. These results indicate that spinal nociception and HPA-axis activation caused by laparotomy in pigs can be attenuated by use of infiltration and incisional local anaesthetics prior to surgery. The present model provides a valuable tool in the evaluation of analgesic treatment during surgery, offering objective measures of both nociception and stress.

Evaluation of a single dose versus a divided dose regimen of amoxycillin in treatment of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae infection in pigs.

The theory of a time-dependent effect of amoxycillin was examined in a model of porcine Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (Ap)-infection using clinically relevant dosage regimens. Twenty hours after infection of fourteen pigs, when clinical signs of pneumonia were present, one group of pigs received a single dose of amoxycillin (20 mg/kg, i.m.), whereas another group received four doses of 5 mg/kg injected at 8-h intervals. A similar AUC of the plasma amoxycillin concentration versus time curve was obtained in the two groups, whereas the maximum concentration was threefold higher using the single high dose. Plasma amoxycillin was above the MIC for twice as long using the fractionated dosage scheme. The condition of the animals was evaluated by clinical and haematological observations combined with quantification of biochemical infection markers: C-reactive protein, zinc and ascorbic acid. Within 48 h of treatment, the pigs in both treatment groups recovered clinically. No significant differences in the time-course of clinical observations or plasma concentrations of the biomarkers of infection were observed between the two treatments. In conclusion, the efficacy of these two dosage regimens of amoxycillin was not significantly different in treatment of acute Ap-infection in pigs.

Putative biomarkers for evaluating antibiotic treatment: an experimental model of porcine Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae infection.

Biomarkers of infection were screened for their possible role as evaluators of antibiotic treatment in an aerosol infection model of porcine pneumonia caused by Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (Ap). Following infection of 12 pigs, clinical signs of pneumonia developed within 20 h, whereafter the animals received a single dose of either danofloxacin (2.5mg/kg) or tiamulin (10 mg/kg). To test the discriminative properties of the biomarkers, the dosage regimens were designed with an expected difference in therapeutic efficacy in favour of danofloxacin. Accordingly, the danofloxacin-treated pigs recovered clinically within 24h after treatment, whereas tiamulin-treated animals remained clinically ill until the end of the study, 48 h after treatment. A similar picture was seen for the biomarkers of infection. During the infection period, plasma C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 and haptoglobin increased, whereas plasma zinc, ascorbic acid and alpha-tocopherol decreased. In the danofloxacin-treated animals, CRP, interleukin-6, zinc, ascorbic acid and alpha-tocopherol reverted significantly towards normalisation within 24h of treatment. In contrast, signs of normalisation were absent (CRP, zinc and ascorbic acid) or less marked (interleukin-6 and alpha-tocopherol) in the tiamulin-treated animals. Plasma haptoglobin remained elevated throughout the study in both groups. This indicates that CRP, zinc, ascorbic acid and to a lesser extent interleukin-6 and alpha-tocopherol might be used to evaluate antibiotic treatment of acute Ap-infection in pigs. The present model provides a valuable tool in the evaluation of antibiotic treatments, offering the advantage of clinical and pathological examinations combined with the use of biochemical infection markers.

Comparative localization of cathepsin B protein and activity in colorectal cancer.

Cathepsin B is a lysosomal cysteine proteinase that may participate in cancer progression. We compared localization of its protein and activity during progression of human colorectal cancer. In adenomas and carcinomas, protein expression and, particularly, activity were elevated compared with those in normal colorectal mucosa. In normal mucosa, cathepsin B protein expression was moderate in stroma and variable in epithelium, whereas activity was mainly present in distinct areas of stroma directly underneath the surface of the colon and in epithelium at the surface of the colon. Stroma in adenomas and carcinomas contained moderate to high protein levels but little activity except for areas of angiogenesis, inflammation, and necrosis, in which activity was high. In adenomas and the majority of well-differentiated carcinomas and moderately differentiated carcinomas, cathepsin B protein and activity were found in granular form in the epithelium, close to the basement membrane. Protein and activity levels were low and diffusely distributed in cancer cells in the remainder of the well-differentiated and moderately differentiated carcinomas and in all poorly differentiated carcinomas. Invasive fronts in most cancers contained moderate protein levels but high activity. We conclude that (a) activity localization is essential to understand the role of cathepsin B in cancer progression, and (b) cathepsin B activity in human colon is associated with invasion of cancer cells, endothelial cells, and inflammatory cells, and in cell death, both apoptotic and necrotic.

Signal amplification in immunohistochemistry at the light microscopic level using biotinylated tyramide and nanogold-silver staining.

Signal amplification techniques greatly enhance the sensitivity of immunohistochemical (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH) methods. In particular, catalyzed signal amplification (CSA) using labeled tyramide or Nanogold-silver staining is an important signal amplification tool. We have applied a combination of both techniques, as has been introduced for ISH, for a further increase in sensitivity of an IHC method to detect cathepsin B. This lysosomal proteinase can also be expressed extracellularly, particularly in relation to cancer metastasis. Higher sensitivity of the IHC method was needed because existing methods failed to demonstrate cathepsin B protein where cathepsin B activity was found with a fluorescence enzyme histochemical method. Combined CSA and Nanogold-silver staining provided the sensitivity that was required. Moreover, this signal amplification method enabled the use of a 10-fold lower concentration of primary antibody (1 microg/ml). Nonspecific background staining was low provided that endogenous biotin, avidin, and peroxidase were completely blocked. The method was reproducible when all steps, and particularly the silver enhancement step, were rigidly controlled. The method resulted in localization patterns of cathepsin B protein that were in agreement with those of cathepsin B activity in serial sections of rat liver containing colon cancer metastases. We concluded that combined application of CSA and Nanogold-silver staining provides high sensitivity for immunohistochemical methods and that activity localization by an enzyme histochemical method is a very attractive alternative to IHC localization of an enzyme because it is at least as sensitive, it is rapid and simple, and it provides direct information on the function of an enzyme.

Probabilistic approach to derive operational intervention levels for nuclear emergency preparedness.

A probabilistic approach is presented for the derivation of operational intervention levels as guidelines for intervention in a nuclear emergency. The probabilistic approach differs from the standard, deterministic approach in that the many variables needed for a risk and dose estimate are allowed to fluctuate and sampled, rather than using point estimate of key parameters. The fluctuations have a large effect on the operational intervention levels, leading to optimized levels that depend both on the accident scenario and on the distance from the site of the hypothetical accident. The methodology is illustrated for the case of dose rate operational intervention levels for sheltering. At distances larger than a few kilometers, values of dose rate operational intervention levels are obtained that are considerably higher than values developed through deterministic practices. As demonstrated, calculations of site-specific operational intervention levels can augment the emergency preparedness for nuclear facilities. In principle, the approach can be expanded to yield optimized emergency response planning for any nuclear facility subject to various accident conditions.

Periodic orbits of nonscaling Hamiltonian systems from quantum mechanics.

Quantal (E,tau) plots are constructed from the eigenvalues of the quantum system. We demonstrate that these representations display the periodic orbits of the classical system, including bifurcations and the transition from stable to unstable. (c) 1995 American Institute of Physics.