The future of childhood maltreatment research: Diversity and equity-informed perspectives for inclusive methodology and social justice.

A long-standing practice in clinical and developmental psychology research on childhood maltreatment has been to consider prospective, official court records to be the gold standard measure of childhood maltreatment and to give less weight to adults' retrospective self-reports of childhood maltreatment, sometimes even treating this data source as invalid. We argue that both formats of assessment - prospective and retrospective - provide important information on childhood maltreatment. Prospective data drawn from court records should not necessarily be considered the superior format, especially considering evidence of structural racism in child welfare. Part I overviews current maltreatment definitions in the context of the developmental psychopathology (DP) framework that has guided maltreatment research for over 40 years. Part II describes the ongoing debate about the disproportionalities of minoritized children at multiple decision-making stages of the child welfare system and the role that racism plays in many minoritized families' experience of this system. Part III offers alternative interpretations for the lack of concordance between prospective, official records of childhood maltreatment and retrospective self-reports, and for the differential associations between each format of data with health outcomes. Moving forward, we recommend that future DP research on childhood maltreatment apply more inclusive, diversity and equity-informed approaches when assessing and interpreting the effects of childhood maltreatment on lifespan and intergenerational outcomes. We encourage future generations of DP scholars to use assessment methods that affirm the lived experiences of individuals and families who have directly experienced maltreatment and the child welfare system.

Longitudinal associations between parental reflective functioning and maternal mind-mindedness.

Little work has examined longitudinal associations between parental reflective functioning (PRF) and mind-mindedness (MM), limiting the understanding of separate or bidirectional trajectories of these related but distinct forms of mentalization. We examined cross-lagged associations between PRF, assessed via interview, and MM, coded from play interactions, over 12 months among 90 parents (86% female; 57% White, 43% Black) of infants (Mage = 10.56 months, SD = 8.20) who were participating in The Michigan Model of Infant Mental Health Home Visiting. Data were collected at study enrollment Time 1 (T1) and at 6-month Time 2 (T2) and 12-month Time 3 (T3) postenrollment. Mind-minded comments were coded as appropriate, reflecting accurate interpretation of mental states or nonattuned, characterizing inaccurate interpretations. PRF and appropriate MM each remained stable over time. PRF at the T1 positively predicted appropriate MM at T2. No other cross-lagged associations between PRF and appropriate MM were significant. Concurrent correlations between appropriate MM and PRF were significant only at T3. Nonattuned MM showed stability from T1 to T2 but nonattuned MM at the T2 did not predict nonattuned MM at T3. Greater PRF at T1 predicted less nonattuned MM at T2. No other cross-lagged associations between PRF and nonattuned MM were significant. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Relationships reduce risks for child maltreatment: Results of an experimental trial of Infant Mental Health Home Visiting.

Background: Research examining the effectiveness of home visiting programs that reduce child maltreatment or associated risks yield mixed findings; some find positive significant impacts on maltreatment, whereas others find small to no effects. The Michigan Model of Infant Mental Health Home Visiting (IMH-HV) is a manualized, needs-driven, relationship-focused, home-based intervention service that significantly impacts maternal and child outcomes; the effect of this intervention on child maltreatment has not been sufficiently evaluated. Objective: The current study examined associations between treatment and dosage of IMH-HV and child abuse potential in a longitudinal, randomized controlled trial (RCT). Participants and setting: Participants included 66 mother-infant dyads (Mother M age = 31.93 years at baseline; child M age = 11.22 months at baseline) who received up to 1 year of IMH-HV treatment (Mdn = 32 visits) or no IMH-HV treatment during the study period. Methods: Mothers completed a battery of assessments including the Brief Child Abuse Potential Inventory (BCAP) at baseline and at the 12-month follow-up assessment. Results: Regression analyses indicated that after controlling for baseline BCAP scores, those who received any IMH-HV treatment had lower 12-month BCAP scores compared to those who received no treatment. Additionally, participation in more visits was associated with lower child abuse potential at 12 months, and a reduced likelihood of scoring in the risk range. Conclusion: Findings suggest that greater participation in IMH-HV is associated with decreased risk for child maltreatment 1 year after initiating treatment. IMH-HV promotes parent-clinician therapeutic alliance and provides infant-parent psychotherapy which differentiate it from traditional home visiting programs.

Self-regulation and Psychopathology in Young Children.

The current study examined concurrent relationships between children's self-regulation, measured behaviorally and by parent-report, and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The aim was to distinguish which components of self-regulation (attention vs. inhibitory control, "hot" vs. "cool" regulation) best predict dimensional symptomatology and clinical disorders in young children. The participants were 120 children, ages 4-8 years old. Results showed that greater parent-reported attention was associated with fewer internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Behaviorally-measured hot inhibitory control related to fewer internalizing symptoms, whereas parent-reported inhibitory control related to fewer externalizing symptoms. Similar patterns emerged for clinical diagnoses, with parent-rated attention most strongly predicting disorders across domains. Results support prior evidence implicating self-regulatory deficits in externalizing problems, while also demonstrating that components of self-regulation are impaired with internalizing symptoms. Further, different sub-components of self-regulation relate to different dimensions of psychopathology in children. Interventions should target these areas in children at-risk for disorders.

The error-related negativity as a neuromarker of risk or resilience in young children.

INTRODUCTION: The error-related negativity (ERN) is a neural response that reflects error monitoring. Contradictorily, an enlarged (more negative) ERN has been cited as both a risk factor and a protective factor, which hinders its utility as a predictive indicator. The aim of the current study was to examine the associations between ERN measured in early childhood with the development of cognitive control (CC), emotion regulation, and internalizing/externalizing symptoms over 1-2 years. METHODS: When children were ages 5-7, EEG was collected during a Go/No-Go task. A subset of the original participants (n = 30) were selected based on their baseline ERN in an extreme-case design: half with high-amplitude ERN, matched by age and sex with another group with low-amplitude ERN. RESULTS: At follow-up, children in the High-Amplitude group showed better executive function, less self-reported anxiety and depression, less affect dysregulation, more parent-rated CC, less lability/negativity, and fewer parent-reported externalizing problems. Many results held even when accounting for baseline levels. Further, emotion dysregulation mediated the relationship between the ERN and both anxiety and externalizing problems, while CC mediated the ERN's relationship with externalizing problems only. CONCLUSIONS: These results can inform identification and intervention efforts for children at risk for psychopathology.

Maternal History of Adverse Experiences and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Impact Toddlers' Early Socioemotional Wellbeing: The Benefits of Infant Mental Health-Home Visiting.

BACKGROUND: The present study examined the efficacy of the Michigan Model of Infant Mental Health-Home Visiting (IMH-HV) infant mental health treatment to promote the socioemotional wellbeing of infants and young children. Science illuminates the role of parental "co-regulation" of infant emotion as a pathway to young children's capacity for self-regulation. The synchrony of parent-infant interaction begins to shape the infant's own nascent regulatory capacities. Parents with a history of childhood adversity, such as maltreatment or witnessing family violence, and who struggle with symptoms of post-traumatic stress may have greater challenges in co-regulating their infant, thus increasing the risk of their children exhibiting social and emotional problems such as anxiety, aggression, and depression. Early intervention that targets the infant-parent relationship may help buffer the effect of parental risk on child outcomes. METHODS: Participants were 58 mother-infant/toddler dyads enrolled in a longitudinal randomized control trial testing the efficacy of the relationship-based IMH-HV treatment model. Families were eligible based on child age (<24 months at enrollment) and endorsement of at least two of four socio-demographic factors commonly endorsed in community mental health settings: elevated depression symptoms, three or more Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) parenting stress, and/or child behavior or development concerns. This study included dyads whose children were born at the time of study enrollment and completed 12-month post-baseline follow-up visits. Parents reported on their own history of ACEs and current posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, as well as their toddler's socioemotional development (e.g., empathy, prosocial skills, aggression, anxiety, prolonged tantrums). RESULTS: Maternal ACEs predicted more toddler emotional problems through their effect on maternal PTSD symptoms. Parents who received IMH-HV treatment reported more positive toddler socioemotional wellbeing at follow-up relative to the control condition. The most positive socioemotional outcomes were for toddlers of mothers with low to moderate PTSD symptoms who received IMH-HV treatment. CONCLUSION: Results indicate the efficacy of IMH-HV services in promoting more optimal child socioemotional wellbeing even when mothers reported mild to moderate PTSD symptoms. Results also highlight the need to assess parental trauma when infants and young children present with socioemotional difficulties.

Cortisol and Parenting Predict Pathways to Disinhibited Social Engagement and Social Functioning in Previously Institutionalized Children.

Previously institutionalized children on average show persistent deficits in physiological and behavioral regulation, as well as a lack of normative reticence towards strangers, or disinhibited social engagement (DSE). Post-adoption parenting, specifically a combination of supportive presence and structure/limit-setting, may protect against DSE over time via better adrenocortical functioning. This study examined the impact of adrenocortical activity and post-adoption parenting on DSE across the first two years post-adoption (age at adoption: 16-36 months) and observed kindergarten social outcomes in previously institutionalized children (n = 94) compared to non-adopted children (n = 52). Path analyses indicated a developmental cascade from institutional care (operationalized as a dichotomous group variable, age at adoption, and months of institutionalization) to blunted adrenocortical activity, increased DSE, and lower kindergarten social competence. Consistent with a permissive parenting style, higher parental support was associated with increased DSE, but only when not accompanied by effective structure/limit-setting. Further, parental structure reduced the association between blunted adrenocortical activity and DSE behaviors.

Early adversity and children's regulatory deficits: Does postadoption parenting facilitate recovery in postinstitutionalized children?

Children reared in orphanages typically experience the lack of stable, reliable caregivers and are at increased risk for deficits in regulatory abilities including difficulties in inhibitory control, attention, and emotion regulation. Although adoption results in a radical shift in caregiving quality, there remains variation in postadoption parenting, yet little research has examined postadoption parenting that may promote recovery in children experiencing early life adversity in the form of institutional care. Participants included 93 postinstitutionalized children adopted between 15 and 36 months of age and 52 nonadopted same-aged peers. Parenting was assessed four times during the first 2 years postadoption (at 2, 8, 16, and 24 months postadoption) and children's regulation was assessed at age 5 (M age = 61.68 months) and during kindergarten (M age = 71.55 months). Multiple parenting dimensions including sensitivity/responsiveness, structure/limit setting, and consistency in routines were examined. Both parental sensitivity and structure moderated the effect of preadoption adversity on children's emotion regulation while greater consistency was associated with better inhibitory control and fewer attention problems. Results support the notion that postadoption parenting during toddlerhood and the early preschool years promotes better regulation skills following early adversity.

A Preliminary, Randomized-Controlled Trial of Mindfulness and Game-Based Executive Function Trainings to Promote Self-Regulation in Internationally-Adopted Children.

Although many children adopted internationally show remarkable recovery once placed in families, as a group they continue to exhibit persisting developmental deficits and delays in self-regulation. The current study uses a stratified, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the effects of mindfulness-based and executive function trainings (EFTs) on internationally adopted (IA) children's self-regulation, including effortful/inhibitory control, attention, delay of gratification, and emotion-regulation. IA children ages 6-10 years were randomized into mindfulness training (MT), EFT, or no intervention (NI) groups. The MT and EFT groups attended 12 one-hour group sessions. Ninety-six children (MT, n = 33; EFT, n = 32; NI, n = 31) completed the study and were tested on computerized and non-computerized measures of self-regulation. Compared with the NI group, the MT group improved delay of gratification, and the EFT group improved inhibitory control and selective attention. There was no effect of either intervention on emotion regulation. MTs and EFTs show promise for improving self-regulation in IA children.

Maternal Postpartum Depression Increases Vulnerability for Toddler Behavior Problems through Infant Cortisol Reactivity.

The current study examined the role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal reactivity (a physiological indicator of stress) in early infancy as a mediator of the relationship between maternal postpartum depression and toddler behavior problems. Participants were 137 at-risk mothers and their children participating in a longitudinal study of intergenerational transmission of risk. Mothers' depression was measured five times during the infants' first 18 months. Infant cortisol was collected during a social stressor (the still-face paradigm) when infants were 6 months old, and mothers reported on toddlers' internalizing and externalizing symptoms at 18 months. Among this sample of high-risk mother-infant dyads, early postpartum depression predicted atypical infant cortisol reactivity at 6 months, which mediated the effect of maternal depression on increased toddler behavior problems. Clinical implications are discussed.

A Collaborative Process for Evaluating Infant Mental Health Home Visiting in Michigan.

This column describes an innovative collaboration in Michigan that could serve as a model for meaningful community-university-state partnerships. Recent legislation in Michigan threatened the infant mental health home visiting program, a service for Medicaid-eligible infants, toddlers, and families affected by mental illness. The University of Michigan is overseeing two major studies in collaboration with the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, the Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health, the Michigan Infant Toddler Research Exchange faculty network, and community health service providers to determine the evidence base for the program and ensure its future success.

Bidirectional effects of parenting and child behavior in internationally adopting families.

Adoption marks a radical transition in caregiving for thousands of children adopted internationally from institutional care; however, very little is known about the quality of this parenting compared with other populations or the transactional effects of parent and child characteristics in postadoption families during the transition to family care. The current study examined parental sensitivity/responsiveness and structure/limit-setting in a group of 68 children adopted internationally from institutions (41 girls, 27 boys; M age = 26.13 months, SD = 4.99) and their parents over the first year after adoption and compared them to a sample of nonadoptive families (26 girls, 26 boys; M age = 27.65 months, SD = 5.71). Results indicated no mean-level differences in parenting quality on either dimension between adoptive and nonadoptive parents. For postinstitutionalized youth, higher quality parental structure and limit-setting soon after adoption predicted reduced child regulation difficulties 8 months later; however, initial child regulation did not predict later parenting. There were no cross-lagged relations for parental sensitivity/responsiveness. Higher quality preadoptive care for children was associated with higher scores on both sensitivity/responsiveness and structure and limit-setting among adoptive parents. Less growth stunting, indicative of less preadoptive adversity, was associated with parents' use of more effective structure and limit-setting behaviors. Policies should promote better preadoptive care abroad, such as lower caregiver-child ratios, as well as early adoption. At least in families exhibiting generally high sensitivity/responsiveness, interventions should target parental structure and limit-setting to have the greatest effect on child behavioral regulation in the immediate years postadoption. (PsycINFO Database Record

The course of early disinhibited social engagement among post-institutionalized adopted children.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 20% of post-institutionalized (PI) children exhibit disinhibited social engagement (DSE) or the propensity to approach and engage strangers. There is little longitudinal research examining changes in DSE after adoption, or methods of identifying children with persistent behaviors. METHODS: DSE was assessed observationally four times during the first 2 years postadoption in PI children 16-36 months at adoption (n = 68) relative to same-age nonadopted children (n = 52). At age 5, a validated interview determined which PI children met criteria for Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED). RESULTS: DSE trajectories initially increased and then stabilized. PIs had higher DSE levels initially and a steeper increase rate than NAs. When separated into physical and nonphysical DSE components, group differences arose in initial physical DSE and the rate of change of nonphysical DSE. DSE rate of increase predicted DSED diagnosis, as did longer institutional duration and poorer institutional care. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of increase in DSE postadoption, rather than the level observed at adoption, is predictive of disordered social engagement by age 5 years.

The interpersonal antecedents of supportive parenting: a prospective, longitudinal study from infancy to adulthood.

This study drew on prospective, longitudinal data to test the hypothesis that the intergenerational transmission of positive parenting is mediated by competence in subsequent relationships with peers and romantic partners. Interview-based ratings of supportive parenting were completed with a sample of 113 individuals (46% male) followed from birth to age 32. Results indicated that supportive parenting during adulthood was predicted by observed maternal sensitivity during the first 3 years of life, even after controlling for adults' age at first childbirth and adults' socioeconomic status and educational attainment at the time of the second generation parenting assessments. Moreover, the intergenerational association in parenting was mediated by later competence in relationships with peers and romantic partners. In particular, sensitive caregiving in infancy and early childhood predicted teachers' rankings of children's social competence with peers during childhood and adolescence, which in turn forecasted later interview ratings of romantic relationship competence during young adulthood, which in turn predicted supportive parenting in adulthood. Findings are discussed with respect to current theory and research on the intergenerational transmission of parenting.

Longitudinal associations between adult attachment states of mind and parenting quality.

Much of the current evidence regarding the associations between attachment states of mind and parenting quality is based on concurrent or short-term longitudinal studies with samples of adults. Using data from the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation, we examined the predictive significance of the coherence of participants' discourse during the Adult Attachment Interview, assessed at ages 19 and 26 years, for parenting quality measured using observations (administered when participants' children were 24 and 42 months old) and interview ratings (collected when parents were 32 years old). Results indicated that associations between AAI coherence and parenting quality varied based on when adult attachment was assessed, as well as when and how parenting quality was assessed. Coherence of mind measured at age 19 years predicted observed supportive parenting when it was assessed when participants were in their late-20s and early-30s, a developmental period when parenting can be conceptualized as a salient developmental task, but not before. In contrast, coherence of mind measured at age 26 years predicted both observed and interview-ratings of supportive parenting.

Disinhibited social engagement in postinstitutionalized children: differentiating normal from atypical behavior.

The most commonly reported socially aberrant behavior in postinstitutionalized (PI) children is disinhibited social engagement (DSE; also known as indiscriminate friendliness). There is no gold standard for measurement of this phenomenon nor agreement on how to differentiate it from normative behavior. We adopted a developmental psychopathology approach (Cicchetti, 1984) to study this phenomenon by comparing it to normative social development and by studying its patterns over time in 50 newly adopted PI children (16-36 months at adoption) compared with 41 children adopted early from foster care overseas and 47 nonadopted (NA) controls. Using coded behavioral observations of the child's interaction with an unfamiliar adult, atypical behaviors were differentiated from normative behaviors. Principal components analysis identified two dimensions of social disinhibition. The nonphysical social dimension (e.g., initiations, proximity) showed wide variation in NA children and is therefore considered a typical form of sociability. Displays of physical contact and intimacy were rare in NA children, suggesting that they represent an atypical pattern of behavior. Both adopted groups demonstrated more physical DSE behavior than NA children. There were no group differences on the nonphysical factor, and it increased over time in all groups. Implications for understanding the etiology of DSE and future directions are discussed.