Deep Learning Technology and Image Sensing.

The scientific landscape is constantly evolving, marked by groundbreaking advancements in imaging, sensing, and machine learning that expand the realms of possibility across various disciplines [...].

Net synaptic drive of fast-spiking interneurons is inverted towards inhibition in human FCD I epilepsy.

Focal cortical dysplasia type I (FCD I) is the most common cause of pharmaco-resistant epilepsy with the poorest prognosis. To understand the epileptogenic mechanisms of FCD I, we obtained tissue resected from patients with FCD I epilepsy, and from tumor patients as control. Using whole-cell patch clamp in acute human brain slices, we investigated the cellular properties of fast-spiking interneurons (FSINs) and pyramidal neurons (PNs) within the ictal onset zone. In FCD I epilepsy, FSINs exhibited lower firing rates from slower repolarization and action potential broadening, while PNs had increased firing. Importantly, excitatory synaptic drive of FSINs increased progressively with the scale of cortical activation as a general property across species, but this relationship was inverted towards net inhibition in FCD I epilepsy. Further comparison with intracranial electroencephalography (iEEG) from the same patients revealed that the spatial extent of pathological high-frequency oscillations (pHFO) was associated with synaptic events at FSINs.

The downregulation of Kv1 channels in Lgi1-/-mice is accompanied by a profound modification of its interactome and a parallel decrease in Kv2 channels.

In animal models of LGI1-dependent autosomal dominant lateral temporal lobe epilepsy, Kv1 channels are downregulated, suggesting their crucial involvement in epileptogenesis. The molecular basis of Kv1 channel-downregulation in LGI1 knock-out mice has not been elucidated and how the absence of this extracellular protein induces an important modification in the expression of Kv1 remains unknown. In this study we analyse by immunofluorescence the modifications in neuronal Kv1.1 and Kv1.2 distribution throughout the hippocampal formation of LGI1 knock-out mice. We show that Kv1 downregulation is not restricted to the axonal compartment, but also takes place in the somatodendritic region and is accompanied by a drastic decrease in Kv2 expression levels. Moreover, we find that the downregulation of these Kv channels is associated with a marked increase in bursting patterns. Finally, mass spectrometry uncovered key modifications in the Kv1 interactome that highlight the epileptogenic implication of Kv1 downregulation in LGI1 knock-out animals.

Differential involvement of mitochondria in post-tetanic potentiation at intracortical excitatory synapses of the medial prefrontal cortex.

Post-tetanic Ca2+ release from mitochondria produces presynaptic residual calcium, which contributes to post-tetanic potentiation. The loss of mitochondria-dependent post-tetanic potentiation is one of the earliest signs of Alzheimer's model mice. Post-tetanic potentiation at intracortical synapses of medial prefrontal cortex has been implicated in working memory. Although mitochondrial contribution to post-tetanic potentiation differs depending on synapse types, it is unknown which synapse types express mitochondria-dependent post-tetanic potentiation in the medial prefrontal cortex. We studied expression of mitochondria-dependent post-tetanic potentiation at different intracortical synapses of the rat medial prefrontal cortex. Post-tetanic potentiation occurred only at intracortical synapses onto layer 5 corticopontine cells from commissural cells and L2/3 pyramidal neurons. Among post-tetanic potentiation-expressing synapses, L2/3-corticopontine synapses in the prelimbic cortex were unique in that post-tetanic potentiation depends on mitochondria because post-tetanic potentiation at corresponding synapse types in other cortical areas was independent of mitochondria. Supporting mitochondria-dependent post-tetanic potentiation at L2/3-to-corticopontine synapses, mitochondria-dependent residual calcium at the axon terminals of L2/3 pyramidal neurons was significantly larger than that at commissural and corticopontine cells. Moreover, post-tetanic potentiation at L2/3-corticopontine synapses, but not at commissural-corticopontine synapses, was impaired in the young adult Alzheimer's model mice. These results would provide a knowledge base for comprehending synaptic mechanisms that underlies the initial clinical signs of neurodegenerative disorders.

Altered exocytosis of inhibitory synaptic vesicles at single presynaptic terminals of cultured striatal neurons in a knock-in mouse model of Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive dominantly inherited neurodegenerative disease caused by the expansion of a cytosine-adenine-guanine (CAG) trinucleotide repeat in the huntingtin gene, which encodes the mutant huntingtin protein containing an expanded polyglutamine tract. One of neuropathologic hallmarks of HD is selective degeneration in the striatum. Mechanisms underlying selective neurodegeneration in the striatum of HD remain elusive. Neurodegeneration is suggested to be preceded by abnormal synaptic transmission at the early stage of HD. However, how mutant huntingtin protein affects synaptic vesicle exocytosis at single presynaptic terminals of HD striatal neurons is poorly understood. Here, we measured synaptic vesicle exocytosis at single presynaptic terminals of cultured striatal neurons (mainly inhibitory neurons) in a knock-in mouse model of HD (zQ175) during electrical field stimulation using real-time imaging of FM 1-43 (a lipophilic dye). We found a significant decrease in bouton density and exocytosis of synaptic vesicles at single presynaptic terminals in cultured striatal neurons. Real-time imaging of VGAT-CypHer5E (a pH sensitive dye conjugated to an antibody against vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT)) for inhibitory synaptic vesicles revealed a reduction in bouton density and exocytosis of inhibitory synaptic vesicles at single presynaptic terminals of HD striatal neurons. Thus, our results suggest that the mutant huntingtin protein decreases bouton density and exocytosis of inhibitory synaptic vesicles at single presynaptic terminals of striatal neurons, causing impaired inhibitory synaptic transmission, eventually leading to the neurodegeneration in the striatum of HD.

Burst firing is required for induction of Hebbian LTP at lateral perforant path to hippocampal granule cell synapses.

High frequency burst firing is critical in summation of back-propagating action potentials (APs) in dendrites, which may greatly depolarize dendritic membrane potential. The physiological significance of burst firings of hippocampal dentate GCs in synaptic plasticity remains unknown. We found that GCs with low input resistance could be categorized into regular-spiking (RS) and burst-spiking (BS) cells based on their initial firing frequency (Finit) upon somatic rheobase current injection, and investigated how two types of GCs differ in long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by high-frequency lateral perforant pathway (LPP) inputs. Induction of Hebbian LTP at LPP synapses required at least three postsynaptic APs at Finit higher than 100 Hz, which was met in BS but not in RS cells. The synaptically evoked burst firing was critically dependent on persistent Na+ current, which was larger in BS than RS cells. The Ca2+ source for Hebbian LTP at LPP synapses was primarily provided by L-type calcium channels. In contrast, Hebbian LTP at medial PP synapses was mediated by T-type calcium channels, and could be induced regardless of cell types or Finit of postsynaptic APs. These results suggest that intrinsic firing properties affect synaptically driven firing patterns, and that bursting behavior differentially affects Hebbian LTP mechanisms depending on the synaptic input pathway.

L-type Ca2+ channels mediate regulation of glutamate release by subthreshold potential changes.

Subthreshold depolarization enhances neurotransmitter release evoked by action potentials and plays a key role in modulating synaptic transmission by combining analog and digital signals. This process is known to be Ca2+ dependent. However, the underlying mechanism of how small changes in basal Ca2+ caused by subthreshold depolarization can regulate transmitter release triggered by a large increase in local Ca2+ is not well understood. This study aimed to investigate the source and signaling mechanisms of Ca2+ that couple subthreshold depolarization with the enhancement of glutamate release in hippocampal cultures and CA3 pyramidal neurons. Subthreshold depolarization increased presynaptic Ca2+ levels, the frequency of spontaneous release, and the amplitude of evoked release, all of which were abolished by blocking L-type Ca2+ channels. A high concentration of intracellular Ca2+ buffer or blockade of calmodulin abolished depolarization-induced increases in transmitter release. Estimation of the readily releasable pool size using hypertonic sucrose showed depolarization-induced increases in readily releasable pool size, and this increase was abolished by the blockade of calmodulin. Our results provide mechanistic insights into the modulation of transmitter release by subthreshold potential change and highlight the role of L-type Ca2+ channels in coupling subthreshold depolarization to the activation of Ca2+-dependent signaling molecules that regulate transmitter release.

Rewiring of Prelimbic Inputs to the Nucleus Accumbens Core Underlies Cocaine-Induced Behavioral Sensitization.

BACKGROUND: Unbalanced activity of medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the direct and indirect pathways mediates reward-related behaviors induced by addictive drugs. Prelimbic (PL) input to MSNs in the nucleus accumbens core (NAcC) plays a key role in cocaine-induced early locomotor sensitization (LS). However, the adaptive plastic changes at PL-to-NAcC synapses underlying early LS remain unclear. METHODS: Using transgenic mice and retrograde tracing, we identified NAcC-projecting pyramidal neurons (PNs) in the PL cortex based on the expression of dopamine receptor types (D1R or D2R). To examine cocaine-induced alterations in PL-to-NAcC synapses, we measured excitatory postsynaptic current amplitudes evoked by optostimulation of PL afferents to MSNs. Riluzole was chosen to test the effects of PL excitability on cocaine-induced changes of PL-to-NAcC synapses. RESULTS: NAcC-projecting PNs were segregated into D1R- and D2R-expressing PNs (D1- and D2-PNs, respectively), and their excitability was opposingly regulated by respective dopamine agonists. Both D1- and D2-PNs exhibited balanced innervation of direct MSNs and indirect MSNs in naïve animals. Repeated cocaine injections resulted in biased synaptic strength toward direct MSNs through presynaptic mechanisms in both D1- and D2-PNs, although D2R activation reduced the D2-PN excitability. Under group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors coactivation, however, D2R activation enhanced the D2-PN excitability. The cocaine-induced rewiring accompanied LS, and both rewiring and LS were precluded by PL infusion of riluzole, which reduced the intrinsic excitability of PL neurons. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that cocaine-induced rewiring of PL-to-NAcC synapses correlates well with early behavioral sensitization and that rewiring and LS can be prevented by riluzole-induced reduction of excitability of PL neurons.

Atomically Thin Synapse Networks on Van Der Waals Photo-Memtransistors.

A new type of atomically thin synaptic network on van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures is reported, where each ultrasmall cell (≈2 nm thick) built with trilayer WS2 semiconductor acts as a gate-tunable photoactive synapse, i.e., a photo-memtransistor. A train of UV pulses onto the WS2 memristor generates dopants in atomic-level precision by direct light-lattice interactions, which, along with the gate tunability, leads to the accurate modulation of the channel conductance for potentiation and depression of the synaptic cells. Such synaptic dynamics can be explained by a parallel atomistic resistor network model. In addition, it is shown that such a device scheme can generally be realized in other 2D vdW semiconductors, such as MoS2 , MoSe2 , MoTe2 , and WSe2 . Demonstration of these atomically thin photo-memtransistor arrays, where the synaptic weights can be tuned for the atomistic defect density, provides implications for a new type of artificial neural networks for parallel matrix computations with an ultrahigh integration density.

Dopamine Receptor Supports the Potentiation of Intrinsic Excitability and Synaptic LTD in Temporoammonic-CA1 Synapse.

Dopaminergic projection to the hippocampus from the ventral tegmental area or locus ceruleus has been considered to play an essential role in the acquisition of novel information. Hence, the dopaminergic modulation of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus has been widely studied. We examined how the D1 and D2 receptors influenced the mGluR5-mediated synaptic plasticity of the temporoammonic-CA1 synapses and showed that the dopaminergic modulation of the temporoammonic-CA1 synapses was expressed in various ways. Our findings suggest that the dopaminergic system in the hippocampal CA1 region regulates the long-term synaptic plasticity and processing of the novel information.

Gradual decorrelation of CA3 ensembles associated with contextual discrimination learning is impaired by Kv1.2 insufficiency.

The associative network of hippocampal CA3 is thought to contribute to rapid formation of contextual memory from one-trial learning, but the network mechanisms underlying decorrelation of neuronal ensembles in CA3 is largely unknown. Kv1.2 expressions in rodent CA3 pyramidal cells (CA3-PCs) are polarized to distal apical dendrites, and its downregulation specifically enhances dendritic responses to perforant pathway (PP) synaptic inputs. We found that haploinsufficiency of Kv1.2 (Kcna2+/-) in CA3-PCs, but not Kv1.1 (Kcna1+/-), lowers the threshold for long-term potentiation (LTP) at PP-CA3 synapses, and that the Kcna2+/- mice are normal in discrimination of distinct contexts but impaired in discrimination of similar but slightly distinct contexts. We further examined the neuronal ensembles in CA3 and dentate gyrus (DG), which represent the two similar contexts using in situ hybridization of immediate early genes, Homer1a and Arc. The size and overlap of CA3 ensembles activated by the first visit to the similar contexts were not different between wild type and Kcna2+/- mice, but these ensemble parameters diverged over training days between genotypes, suggesting that abnormal plastic changes at PP-CA3 synapses of Kcna2+/- mice is responsible for the impaired pattern separation. Unlike CA3, DG ensembles were not different between two genotype mice. The DG ensembles were already separated on the first day, and their overlap did not further evolve. Eventually, the Kcna2+/- mice exhibited larger CA3 ensemble size and overlap upon retrieval of two contexts, compared to wild type or Kcna1+/- mice. These results suggest that sparse LTP at PP-CA3 synapse probably supervised by mossy fiber inputs is essential for gradual decorrelation of CA3 ensembles.

Voltage-gated calcium channels contribute to spontaneous glutamate release directly via nanodomain coupling or indirectly via calmodulin.

Neurotransmitter release occurs either synchronously with action potentials (evoked release) or spontaneously (spontaneous release). Whether the molecular mechanisms underlying evoked and spontaneous release are identical, especially whether voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) can trigger spontaneous events, is still a matter of debate in glutamatergic synapses. To elucidate this issue, we characterized the VGCC dependence of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) in various synapses with different coupling distances between VGCCs and synaptic vesicles, known as a critical factor in evoked release. We found that most of the extracellular calcium-dependent mEPSCs were attributable to VGCCs in cultured autaptic hippocampal neurons and the mature calyx of Held where VGCCs and vesicles were tightly coupled. Among loosely coupled synapses, mEPSCs were not VGCC-dependent at immature calyx of Held and CA1 pyramidal neuron synapses, whereas VGCCs contribution was significant at CA3 pyramidal neuron synapses. Interestingly, the contribution of VGCCs to spontaneous glutamate release in CA3 pyramidal neurons was abolished by a calmodulin antagonist, calmidazolium. These data suggest that coupling distance between VGCCs and vesicles determines VGCC dependence of spontaneous release at tightly coupled synapses, yet VGCC contribution can be achieved indirectly at loosely coupled synapses.

Calbindin regulates Kv4.1 trafficking and excitability in dentate granule cells via CaMKII-dependent phosphorylation.

Calbindin, a major Ca2+ buffer in dentate granule cells (GCs), plays a critical role in shaping Ca2+ signals, yet how it regulates neuronal function remains largely unknown. Here, we found that calbindin knockout (CBKO) mice exhibited dentate GC hyperexcitability and impaired pattern separation, which co-occurred with reduced K+ current due to downregulated surface expression of Kv4.1. Relatedly, manipulation of calbindin expression in HT22 cells led to changes in CaMKII activation and the level of surface localization of Kv4.1 through phosphorylation at serine 555, confirming the mechanism underlying neuronal hyperexcitability in CBKO mice. We also discovered that Ca2+ buffering capacity was significantly reduced in the GCs of Tg2576 mice to the level of CBKO GCs, and this reduction was restored to normal levels by antioxidants, suggesting that calbindin is a target of oxidative stress. Our data suggest that the regulation of CaMKII signaling by Ca2+ buffering is crucial for neuronal excitability regulation.

Heteroepitaxial van der Waals semiconductor superlattices.

A broad range of transition metal dichalcogenide (TMDC) semiconductors are available as monolayer (ML) crystals, so the precise integration of each kind into van der Waals (vdW) superlattices (SLs) could enable the realization of novel structures with previously unexplored functionalities. Here we report the atomic layer-by-layer epitaxial growth of vdW SLs with programmable stacking periodicities, composed of more than two kinds of dissimilar TMDC MLs, such as MoS2, WS2 and WSe2. Using kinetics-controlled vdW epitaxy in the near-equilibrium limit by metal-organic chemical vapour depositions, we achieved precise ML-by-ML stacking, free of interlayer atomic mixing, which resulted in tunable two-dimensional vdW electronic systems. As an example, by exploiting the series of type II band alignments at coherent two-dimensional vdW heterointerfaces, we demonstrated valley-polarized carrier excitations-one of the most distinctive electronic features in vdW ML semiconductors-which scale with the stack numbers n in our (MoS2/WS2)n SLs on optical excitations.

Postnatal maturation of glutamate clearance and release kinetics at the rat and mouse calyx of Held synapses.

Although calyx of Held synapses undergo dramatic changes around the hearing onset, previous in vivo studies suggest that the calyx synapses undergo further post-hearing maturation process. While developmental changes over the hearing onset have been extensively studied, this post-hearing maturation process remained relatively little investigated. Because of post-hearing maturation, previous results from studies around hearing onset and studies of post-hearing calyx synapses are somewhat inconsistent. Here, we characterized the post-hearing maturation of calyx synapses with regard to in vitro electrophysiological properties in rats and mice. We found that parameters for residual glutamate in the cleft during a train, EPSC kinetics, and vesicle pool size became close to a full mature level by P14, but they further matured until P16 in the rats. Consistently, the phasic and slow EPSCs evoked by action potential trains at P16 calyx synapses were not different from those at P18 or P25 under physiological extracellular [Ca2+ ]o (1.2 mM). In contrast, the parameters for residual current and EPSC kinetics displayed drastic changes until P16 in mice, and slow EPSCs during the train further decreased between P16 and P18, suggesting that maturation of calyx synapses progresses at least up to P16 in rats and P18 in mice.

Identification of Point Defects in Atomically Thin Transition-Metal Dichalcogenide Semiconductors as Active Dopants.

Selective doping in semiconductors is essential not only for monolithic integrated circuity fabrications but also for tailoring their properties including electronic, optical, and catalytic activities. Such active dopants are essentially point defects in the host lattice. In atomically thin two-dimensional (2D) transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), the roles of such point defects are particularly critical in addition to their large surface-to-volume ratio, because their bond dissociation energy is relatively weaker, compared to elemental semiconductors. In this Mini Review, we review recent advances in the identifications of diverse point defects in 2D TMDC semiconductors, as active dopants, toward the tunable doping processes, along with the doping methods and mechanisms in literature. In particular, we discuss key issues in identifying such dopants both at the atomic scales and the device scales with selective examples. Fundamental understanding of these point defects can hold promise for tunability doping of atomically thin 2D semiconductor platforms.

Impaired pattern separation in Tg2576 mice is associated with hyperexcitable dentate gyrus caused by Kv4.1 downregulation.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that causes memory loss. Most AD researches have focused on neurodegeneration mechanisms. Considering that neurodegenerative changes are not reversible, understanding early functional changes before neurodegeneration is critical to develop new strategies for early detection and treatment of AD. We found that Tg2576 mice exhibited impaired pattern separation at the early preclinical stage. Based on previous studies suggesting a critical role of dentate gyrus (DG) in pattern separation, we investigated functional changes in DG of Tg2576 mice. We found that granule cells in DG (DG-GCs) in Tg2576 mice showed increased action potential firing in response to long depolarizations and reduced 4-AP sensitive K+-currents compared to DG-GCs in wild-type (WT) mice. Among Kv4 family channels, Kv4.1 mRNA expression in DG was significantly lower in Tg2576 mice. We confirmed that Kv4.1 protein expression was reduced in Tg2576, and this reduction was restored by antioxidant treatment. Hyperexcitable DG and impaired pattern separation in Tg2576 mice were also recovered by antioxidant treatment. These results highlight the hyperexcitability of DG-GCs as a pathophysiologic mechanism underlying early cognitive deficits in AD and Kv4.1 as a new target for AD pathogenesis in relation to increased oxidative stress.

Inter-spike mitochondrial Ca2+ release enhances high frequency synaptic transmission.

KEY POINTS: Presynaptic mitochondria not only absorb but also release Ca2+ during high frequency stimulation (HFS) when presynaptic [Ca2+ ] is kept low (<500 nm) by high cytosolic Ca2+ buffer or strong plasma membrane calcium clearance mechanisms under physiological external [Ca2+ ]. Mitochondrial Ca2+ release (MCR) does not alter the global presynaptic Ca2+ transients. MCR during HFS enhances short-term facilitation and steady state excitatory postsynaptic currents by increasing vesicular release probability. The intra-train MCR may provide residual calcium at interspike intervals, and thus support high frequency neurotransmission at central glutamatergic synapses. ABSTRACT: Emerging evidence indicates that mitochondrial Ca2+ buffering contributes to local regulation of synaptic transmission. It is unknown, however, whether mitochondrial Ca2+ release (MCR) occurs during high frequency synaptic transmission. Confirming the previous notion that 2 µm tetraphenylphosphonium (TPP+ ) is a specific inhibitor of the mitochondrial Na+ /Ca2+ exchanger (mNCX), we studied the role of MCR via mNCX in short-term plasticity during high frequency stimulation (HFS) at the calyx of Held synapse of the rat. TPP+ reduced short-term facilitation (STF) and steady state excitatory postsynaptic currents during HFS at mature calyx synapses under physiological extracellular [Ca2+ ] ([Ca2+ ]o  = 1.2 mm), but not at immature calyx or at 2 mm [Ca2+ ]o . The inhibitory effects of TPP+ were stronger at synapses with morphologically complex calyces harbouring many swellings and at 32°C than at simple calyx synapses and at room temperature. These effects of TPP+ on STF were well correlated with those on the presynaptic mitochondrial [Ca2+ ] build-up during HFS. Mitochondrial [Ca2+ ] during HFS was increased by TPP+ at mature calyces under 1.2 mm [Ca2+ ]o , and further enhanced at 32°C, but not under 2 mm [Ca2+ ]o or at immature calyces. The close correlation of the effects of TPP+ on mitochondrial [Ca2+ ] with those on STF suggests that mNCX contributes to STF at the calyx of Held synapses. The intra-train MCR enhanced vesicular release probability without altering global presynaptic [Ca2+ ]. Our results suggest that MCR during HFS elevates local [Ca2+ ] near synaptic sites at interspike intervals to enhance STF and to support stable synaptic transmission under physiological [Ca2+ ]o .

Somatostatin enhances visual processing and perception by suppressing excitatory inputs to parvalbumin-positive interneurons in V1.

Somatostatin (SST) is a neuropeptide expressed in a major subtype of GABAergic interneurons in the cortex. Despite abundant expression of SST and its receptors, their modulatory function in cortical processing remains unclear. Here, we found that SST application in the primary visual cortex (V1) improves visual discrimination in freely moving mice and enhances orientation selectivity of V1 neurons. We also found that SST reduced excitatory synaptic transmission to parvalbumin-positive (PV+) fast-spiking interneurons but not to regular-spiking neurons. Last, using serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBEM), we found that axons of SST+ neurons in V1 often contact other axons that exhibit excitatory synapses onto the soma and proximal dendrites of the PV+ neuron. Collectively, our results demonstrate that the neuropeptide SST improves visual perception by enhancing visual gain of V1 neurons via a reduction in excitatory synaptic transmission to PV+ inhibitory neurons.

Kv4.1, a Key Ion Channel For Low Frequency Firing of Dentate Granule Cells, Is Crucial for Pattern Separation.

The dentate gyrus (DG) in the hippocampus may play key roles in remembering distinct episodes through pattern separation, which may be subserved by the sparse firing properties of granule cells (GCs) in the DG. Low intrinsic excitability is characteristic of mature GCs, but ion channel mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we investigated ionic channel mechanisms for firing frequency regulation in hippocampal GCs using male and female mice, and identified Kv4.1 as a key player. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that Kv4.1 was preferentially expressed in the DG, and its expression level determined by Western blot analysis was higher at 8-week than 3-week-old mice, suggesting a developmental regulation of Kv4.1 expression. With respect to firing frequency, GCs are categorized into two distinctive groups: low-frequency (LF) and high-frequency (HF) firing GCs. Input resistance (Rin) of most LF-GCs is lower than 200 MΩ, suggesting that LF-GCs are fully mature GCs. Kv4.1 channel inhibition by intracellular perfusion of Kv4.1 antibody increased firing rates and gain of the input-output relationship selectively in LF-GCs with no significant effect on resting membrane potential and Rin, but had no effect in HF-GCs. Importantly, mature GCs from mice depleted of Kv4.1 transcripts in the DG showed increased firing frequency, and these mice showed an impairment in contextual discrimination task. Our findings suggest that Kv4.1 expression occurring at late stage of GC maturation is essential for low excitability of DG networks and thereby contributes to pattern separation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The sparse activity of dentate granule cells (GCs), which is essential for pattern separation, is supported by high inhibitory inputs and low intrinsic excitability of GCs. Low excitability of GCs is thought to be attributable to a high K+ conductance at resting membrane potentials, but this study identifies Kv4.1, a depolarization-activated K+ channel, as a key ion channel that regulates firing of GCs without affecting resting membrane potentials. Kv4.1 expression is developmentally regulated and Kv4.1 currents are detected only in mature GCs that show low-frequency firing, but not in less mature high-frequency firing GCs. Furthermore, mice depleted of Kv4.1 transcripts in the dentate gyrus show impaired pattern separation, suggesting that Kv4.1 is crucial for sparse coding and pattern separation.