Spray drying of a poorly water-soluble drug nanosuspension for tablet preparation: formulation and process optimization with bioavailability evaluation.

Spray drying experiments of an itraconazole nanosuspension were conducted to generate a dry nanocrystal powder which was subsequently formulated into a tablet formulation for direct compression. The nanosuspension was prepared by high pressure homogenization and characterized for particle-size distribution and surface morphology. A central composite statistical design approach was applied to identify the optimal drug-to-excipient ratio and spray drying temperature. It was demonstrated that the spray drying of a nanosuspension with a mannitol-to-drug mass ratio of 4.5 and at an inlet temperature of 120 °C resulted in a dry powder with the smallest increase in particle size as compared with that of the nanosuspension. X-ray diffraction results indicated that the crystalline structure of the drug was not altered during the spray-drying process. The tablet formulation was identified by determining the micromeritic properties such as flowability and compressibility of the powder mixtures composed of the spray dried nanocrystal powder and other commonly used direct compression excipients. The dissolution rate of the nanocrystal tablets was significantly enhanced and was found to be comparable to that of the marketed Sporanox®. No statistically significant difference in oral absorption between the nanocrystal tablets and Sporanox® capsules was found. In conclusion, the nanosuspension approach is feasible to improve the oral absorption of a BCS Class II drug in a tablet formulation and capable of achieving oral bioavailability equivalent to other well established oral absorption enhancement method.

In vivo absorption comparison of nanotechnology-based silybin tablets with its water-soluble derivative.

In this study, the in vivo oral absorption of a nanocrystal tablet formulation of a BCS II poorly water-soluble drug was compared with that of its water-soluble salt form. Silybin is used as the model drug, and its nanosuspension was prepared by high-pressure homogenization. Effect of process and formulation parameters on properties of the nansuspensions was investigated. Dried powder of the nanosuspension was prepared by spray drying and used for preparing tablets. A pharmacokinetic study was performed in Beagle dogs to compare the absorption for tablets of silybin nanocrystals and silybin meglumine. In vivo absorption of nanocrystal silybin tablet in Beagle dogs was determined. X-ray powder diffraction results indicated that silybin existed in a crystalline state after homogenization. In vivo absorption study in rats showed that the peroral absorption of silybin was enhanced remarkably by decreasing particle size. In vivo absorption of nanocrystal silybin tablet in Beagle dogs was comparable with that of the commercially available tablet of the water-soluble salt form of silybin. In conclusion, it is possible to increase the bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs by preparing its water-soluble derivative.

Preparation and solidification of redispersible nanosuspensions.

To test the feasibility of preparing redispersible powders from nanosuspensions without further addition of drying protectants, Lovastatin was processed into nanosuspensions and subsequently converted into a powder form using a spray-drying process. The effects of spray-drying process parameters and stabilizers on the properties of the spray-dried powders were evaluated. The inlet air temperature was found to have the most pronounced impact; a low-inlet air temperature consistently yielded dried powders with improved redispersibility. This was attributed to the low Peclet number associated with a low-inlet air temperature, making nanoparticles less prone to aggregation and coalescence during spray drying, as evidenced by the well-defined boundary shown between nanoparticles in the SEM photomicrographs of the spray-dried microparticles. The influence of atomization pressure is significant particularly at a low-inlet air temperature. The redispersibility index value of the powder is dependent on the type of stabilizers used in the nanosuspension formulation. Spray-dried powders with acceptable redispersibility were prepared with drug concentration as high as 3%. In conclusion, with optimized process parameters and selected stabilizers, spray drying is a feasible process in the solidification of nanosuspensions with high drug loading and acceptable redispersibility.

Nanosuspensions of poorly water soluble drugs prepared by top-down technologies.

In recent years, nanosuspensions have been accepted as a valuable drug delivery system for poorly water-soluble drugs. Topdown and bottom-up technologies are the two main approaches for generating nanosuspensions. Several products manufactured by the top-down technologies have been successfully commercialized demonstrating that the processing features of the technologies are adaptable to industrial scale operation and meeting high pharmaceutical quality control standards. Nanosuspensions of poorly soluble drugs have shown to achieve dramatic improvements on the in vivo performance of the drugs including the enhancement of bioavailability and elimination of food effect when administered orally. This review will focus on the preparation of nanosuspensions by the top-down technologies. The influence of drug physicochemical properties on the nanosuspension forming process and the subsequent conversion into a dry powder form will be discussed with proposed mechanisms. In addition, the criteria for selection of stabilizers will be reviewed. The characteristics of drugs and stabilizers as well as their interaction effects on the redispersion properties of a dry powder prepared from a nanosuspension will be highlighted. The different administration routes of nanosuspensions are also presented with their potential therapeutic benefits.

Recent advances in polymeric microspheres for parenteral drug delivery--part 2.

INTRODUCTION: Currently marketed microsphere products are manufactured with the use of organic solvents which have a negative impact on the environment and stability of biological molecules. With recent advances in fabrication technologies, solvent free methods have demonstrated potential for the preparation of microspheres. AREAS COVERED: New technical advances recently achieved in solvent based microsphere manufacturing processes have allowed for major improvement in product quality and properties. Novel solvent free fabrication methods combined with newly functionalized biodegradable polymers have been explored for their application in the preparation of microspheres containing biological molecules. EXPERT OPINION: Novel fabrication methods for microspheres have been recently reported but technical challenges and development risks remain high for scale up from bench to industrial commercialization. While the applications of microspheres for delivery of proteins, genes and vaccines have shown promise for clinical use, the approval of newly functionalized polymers as carriers may still face scrutiny on safety and biocompatibility, which can be key factors in securing the regulatory approval of the product.

Recent advances in polymeric microspheres for parenteral drug delivery--part 1.

INTRODUCTION: Polymeric microspheres have been established as a valuable parenteral drug delivery system for sustained release of therapeutic agents via subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. AREAS COVERED: Biodegradable polymers which are either synthetic or from natural sources are reviewed with respect to recent advances in exploring their applications for microsphere fabrications. New information on the impact of formulation variables on the properties of microspheres formed by an emulsion method was also presented. The characterization of microspheres using advanced physical analytical techniques was also reviewed and the utilization of the information in assessing in vivo performance of the product was also highlighted. EXPERT OPINION: The broad clinical use of microspheres for delivery of therapeutic agents in particular biologics such as proteins has not been realized commercially. The limited availability of biodegradable polymers with a long history of regulatory approval and the challenges in gaining regulatory approval of a new polymer have hindered the development of microspheres for parenteral drug delivery.

Nanonization of itraconazole by high pressure homogenization: stabilizer optimization and effect of particle size on oral absorption.

This study was performed to optimize stabilizer systems used in itraconazole (ITZ) nanosuspensions to achieve the greatest extent of size reduction and investigate the effect of particle size on the in vitro dissolution and oral absorption of ITZ. The nanosuspensions were prepared by high pressure homogenization and characterized for particle size, zeta potential, and surface morphology. A central composite method was applied to identify a multiple stabilizer system of Lutrol F127 and sodium lauryl sulfate for optimal particle size reduction. By using the optimized system, an ITZ nanosuspension was prepared that showed the particle size results in good agreement with the values predicted by the model. The nanosuspension was physically stable at 25°C for 1 week. The crystalline form of ITZ was not altered. The ITZ dissolution rate is directly correlated to its particle size, and a smaller particle size yields a faster dissolution rate. Pharmacokinetics study was performed using four ITZ suspensions with various particle sizes in rats (n = 3). A significant increase in both maximal plasma concentration of drug and area under the drug concentration-time curve (AUC) was shown when the particle size was reduced from micrometer to nanometer. However, the AUC was not significantly affected by further reduction of the particle size within the nano-size range.

Recent advances in intravenous delivery of poorly water-soluble compounds.

In recent years, with the widespread application of high-throughput screening technologies in drug discovery, an increasing number of new chemical entities with extremely poor aqueous solubility have been generated. Their poor solubility represents a major challenge for formulation of these compounds for both oral and parenteral administration. Formulations for intravenous (i.v.) application are of significant importance because they are frequently used in several key therapeutic areas, such as oncology and anesthesia. Furthermore, i.v. formulations of new compounds are often needed to determine basic biopharmaceutical parameters and to obtain proof of concept results in the early phase of product development. This review provides an overview of the recent advances in formulation approaches and drug delivery technologies for poorly water-soluble compounds applicable to i.v. administration. The advantages and disadvantages of different strategies are highlighted and an expert opinion on each technical field is presented.

Current advances in sustained-release systems for parenteral drug delivery.

Major progresses in the development of parenteral sustained-release systems have been made in recent years as evidenced by the regulatory approval and market launch of several new products. Both the availability of novel carrier materials and the advances in method of fabrication have contributed to these commercial successes. With the formulation challenges associated with biologics, new delivery systems have also been evolved specifically to address the unmet needs in the parenteral sustained release of proteins. In this review paper, different new carriers systems and preparation methods are discussed with special focus on their applications to biologicals.

Effect of solid state transition on the physical stability of suspensions containing bupivacaine lipid microparticles.

Bupivacaine lipid microparticles were prepared and evaluated as a parenteral sustained-release dosage form for postoperative pain management. Bupivacaine free base was incorporated into a molten tristearin matrix and lipid micro-particles were subsequently formed from this molten mixture by a spray-congealing process. A 3% injectable bupivacaine lipid microparticle suspension was prepared by dispersing 30% bupivacaine lipid microparticles in an aqueous medium containing carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), mannitol, and Tween 80. Upon room temperature storage, the fluid suspension gradually changed into a nonflowing semisolid (gelation) as a result of crystal growth of bupivacaine. However, suspensions prepared with bupivacaine lipid microparticles that were previously annealed at an elevated temperature remained fluid upon long-term storage. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), x-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), and isoperibol solution calorimetry were used to investigate the changes in the solid-state properties of tristearin and bupivacaine in the lipid microparticles before and after the heat treatment. The DSC and XRPD results indicate that after 24 hours of heating at 40 degrees C, tristearin was completely converted from the unstable alpha form to the stable beta form. Using the isoperibol solution calorimetric method, bupivacaine was found to transform into a more stable form after the lipid microparticles were heated at 60 degrees C for 24 hours. The generation of the unstable solid forms of tristearin and bupivacaine was attributed to the resolidification of both components from the molten mixture during the spray-congealing process.

Heat-induced formulation inhomogeneity of a three-component suspension.

A suspension formulation containing sarafloxacin HCl, triamcinolone acetonide, and clotrimazole was developed for the treatment of otitis externa in dogs. The potency for the three active ingredients in this suspension was monitored at 25 degrees C and 40 degrees C for up to 3 months. The potencies of triamcinolone and clotrimazole were found unchanged, but the potency of sarafloxacin HCl in the samples stored at 40 degrees C for 1 month varied significantly between samples. However, assay inconsistency for sarafloxacin HCl was not seen in samples stored at 25 degrees C. Under an optical microscope, large crystals were found in the 40 degrees C stability samples but not in the 25 degrees C samples. The large crystals in 40 degrees C samples were identified as sarafloxacin by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This finding suggests that crystal growth of sarafloxacin took place at 40 degrees C during storage, leading to the formation of larger crystals and the consequent sampling nonuniformity and assay inconsistency. The solid-state properties of these crystals were further evaluated using hot-stage microscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis. The results indicate that the crystal growth of sarafloxacin was most likely attributed to a change in the hydration form of sarafloxacin.

Formulation and characterization of bupivacaine lipospheres.

Bupivacaine lipospheres were prepared as a parenteral sustained-release system for post-operative pain management. Bupivacaine free base was incorporated into micron-sized triglyceride solid particles coated with phospholipids, which were formed via a hot emulsification and cold resolidification process. The bupivacaine liposphere dispersions were characterized with respect to drug loading, particle-size distribution, and morphology. Gelation of the fluid liposphere dispersions was observed at different time intervals upon storage. The type of phospholipids used in the formulation was found to have a major impact on the gelation of the dispersion. The use of synthetic phospholipids instead of the natural phospholipids in the formulation yielded bupivacaine liposphere dispersions exhibiting prolonged gelation time. The addition of a hydrophilic cellulosic polymer can further improve the physical stability of the dispersion.

Polyanhydride implant for antibiotic delivery--from the bench to the clinic.

A polyanhydride implant (Septacin) containing gentamicin sulfate was developed for sustained local delivery of the drug to the site of infection in the treatment of osteomyelitis. Laboratory-scale injection molding equipment was utilized to fabricate the implant for in vitro characterization. Molding conditions were optimized to produce implants with a skin-core structure which was found to be critical in preventing the initial cracking of the implant during in vitro drug release test in water. A manufacturing process consisting of twin-screw extrusion, pelletizing, and injection molding was developed. Polymer-drug pellets were characterized with respect to copolymer molecular weight and drug content uniformity. The implants were terminally sterilized by gamma-radiation which was found to cause increase in copolymer molecular weight as a result of polymer chain extension. The stability of Septacin was evaluated as a function of storage temperature and time. A marked decline in copolymer molecular weight occurred in samples stored above freezing temperatures and significantly slower drug-release profiles were also exhibited by these samples. In vivo drug release from Septacin in rats showed that the gentamicin plasma levels were extremely low, indicating the low systemic exposure to gentamicin. Furthermore, Septacin samples have demonstrated efficacy in the rat skin-abscess and horse-joint infection models. Results from a human in vivo study also showed high local drug concentrations at implantation sites while systemic exposure to the drug was minimal.