A complex systems perspective on chronic aggression and self-injury: case study of a woman with mild intellectual disability and borderline personality disorder.

BACKGROUND: Challenging behaviors like aggression and self-injury are dangerous for clients and staff in residential care. These behaviors are not well understood and therefore often labeled as "complex". Yet it remains vague what this supposed complexity entails at the individual level. This case-study used a three-step mixed-methods analytical strategy, inspired by complex systems theory. First, we construed a holistic summary of relevant factors in her daily life. Second, we described her challenging behavioral trajectory by identifying stable phases. Third, instability and extraordinary events in her environment were evaluated as potential change-inducing mechanisms between different phases. CASE PRESENTATION: A woman, living at a residential facility, diagnosed with mild intellectual disability and borderline personality disorder, who shows a chronic pattern of aggressive and self-injurious incidents. She used ecological momentary assessments to self-rate challenging behaviors daily for 560 days. CONCLUSIONS: A qualitative summary of caretaker records revealed many internal and environmental factors relevant to her daily life. Her clinician narrowed these down to 11 staff hypothesized risk- and protective factors, such as reliving trauma, experiencing pain, receiving medical care or compliments. Coercive measures increased the chance of challenging behavior the day after and psychological therapy sessions decreased the chance of self-injury the day after. The majority of contemporaneous and lagged associations between these 11 factors and self-reported challenging behaviors were non-significant, indicating that challenging behaviors are not governed by mono-causal if-then relations, speaking to its complex nature. Despite this complexity there were patterns in the temporal ordering of incidents. Aggression and self-injury occurred on respectively 13% and 50% of the 560 days. On this timeline 11 distinct stable phases were identified that alternated between four unique states: high levels of aggression and self-injury, average aggression and self-injury, low aggression and self-injury, and low aggression with high self-injury. Eight out of ten transitions between phases were triggered by extraordinary events in her environment, or preceded by increased fluctuations in her self-ratings, or a combination of these two. Desirable patterns emerged more often and were less easily malleable, indicating that when she experiences bad times, keeping in mind that better times lie ahead is hopeful and realistic.

Effectiveness of applied and casual games for young people's mental health: A systematic review of randomised controlled studies.

Many youth experience mental health problems and digital games hold potential as mental health interventions. This systematic review provides an overview of randomised controlled studies assessing the effectiveness of digital applied and casual games for improving mental health in youth aged 6-24 years. A systematic search of PsycINFO, Web of Science and Pubmed yielded 145 eligible studies. Studies on (sub)clinical participant samples (n = 75) most often focused on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism and anxiety. Applied games were found most effective for improving social skills, verbal memory and anxiety, whereas casual games were found most effective for improving depression, anxiety and ADHD. Studies involving healthy youth (n = 70) were grouped into papers examining anxiety in medical settings, momentary effects on positive and negative affect, and papers employing a longitudinal design measuring mental health trait outcomes. Promising results were found for the use of games as distraction tools in medical settings, and for applied and casual games for improving momentary affect. Overall, our findings demonstrate the potential of digital games for improving mental health. Implications and recommendations for future research are discussed, such as developing evaluation guidelines, clearly defining applied games, harmonising outcome measures, including positive outcomes, and examining nonspecific factors that may influence symptom improvement as well.

Unlocking nonlinear dynamics and multistability from intensive longitudinal data: A novel method.

The availability of smart devices has made it possible to collect intensive longitudinal data (ILD) from individuals, providing a unique opportunity to study the complex dynamics of psychological systems. Existing time-series methods often have limitations, such as assuming linear interactions or having restricted forms, leading to difficulties in capturing the complex nature of these systems. To address this issue, we introduce fitlandr, a method with implementation as an R package that integrates nonparametric estimation of the drift-diffusion function and stability landscape. The drift-diffusion function is estimated using the multivariate kernel estimator (MVKE; Bandi & Moloche, 2018), and the stability landscape is estimated through Monte-Carlo estimation of the steady-state distribution (Cui et al., 2021; Cui, Lichtwarck-Aschoff, et al., 2023). Using a simulated emotional system, we demonstrate that fitlandr can effectively recover bistable dynamics from data, even in the presence of moderate noise, and that it primarily relies on dynamic information from the system instead of distributional information. We then apply the method to two empirical single-participant experience sampling method data sets and compared the results with the simulation data sets. Whereas both data sets show a bimodal distribution, fitlandr only revealed bistability in one of them, indicating that bimodality in ILD does not necessarily imply the existence of bistability in the underlying system. These results demonstrate the potential of fitlandr as a tool for uncovering the rich, nonlinear dynamics of psychological systems from ILD. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The best of both worlds? General principles of psychopathology in personalized assessment.

A complex systems approach to psychopathology proposes that general principles lie in the dynamic patterns of psychopathology, which are not restricted to specific psychological processes like symptoms or affect. Hence, it must be possible to find general change profiles in time series data of fully personalized questionnaires. In the current study, we examined general change profiles in personalized self-ratings and related these to four measures of treatment outcome (International Symptom Rating, 21-item Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, daily symptom severity, and self-reflective capacity). We analyzed data of 404 patients with mood and/or anxiety disorders who completed daily self-ratings on personalized questionnaires during psychotherapy. For each patient, a principal component analysis was applied to the multivariate time series in order to retrieve an univariate person-specific time series. Then, using classification and regression methods, we examined these time series for the presence of general change profiles. The change profile classification yielded the following distribution of patients: no-shift (n = 55; 14%), gradual-change (n = 52; 13%), one-shift (n = 233; 58%), reversed-shift (n = 39; 10%) and multiple-shifts (n = 25; 6%). The multiple-shift group had better treatment outcome than the no-shift group on all outcome measures. The one-shift and gradual-change groups had better treatment outcome than the no-shift group on two and three outcome measures, respectively. Overall, this study illustrates that person-specific (idiographic) and general (nomothetic) aspects of psychopathology can be integrated in a complex systems approach to psychopathology, which may combine "the best of both worlds." (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Complexity theory of psychopathology.

There is a renewed interest for complex adaptive system approaches that can account for the inherently complex and dynamic nature of psychopathology. Yet a theory of psychopathology grounded in the principles of complex adaptive systems is lacking. Here, we present such a theory based on the notion of dynamic patterns: patterns that are formed over time. We propose that psychopathology can be understood as a dynamic pattern that emerges from self-organized interactions between interdependent biopsychosocial processes in a complex adaptive system comprising a person in their environment. Psychopathology is emergent in the sense that it refers to the person-environment system as a whole and cannot be reduced to specific system parts. Psychopathology as a dynamic pattern is also self-organized, meaning that it arises solely from the interdependencies in the system: the interactions between countless biopsychosocial variables. All possible manifestations of psychopathology will correspond to a wide variety of dynamic patterns. Yet we propose that the development of these patterns over time can be described by general principles of pattern formation in complex adaptive systems. A discussion of implications for classification, intervention, and public health concludes the article. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The feasibility of daily monitoring in adolescents and young adults with mild intellectual disability or borderline intellectual functioning.

BACKGROUND: It is unclear whether the limitations of young persons with a mild intellectual disability or borderline intellectual functioning preclude feasibility of the daily diary method. METHOD: For 60 consecutive days, 50 participants (Mage = 21.4, 56% male) who receive care in an ambulatory, residential, or juvenile detention setting, self-rated both standardised and personalised diary questions through an app. Diary entries were used for feedback in treatment. Interviews were used to explore acceptability. RESULTS: Average compliance was 70.4%, while 26% of participants dropped out. Compliance was good in ambulatory (88.9%) and residential care (75.6%), but not in the juvenile detention setting (19.4%). The content of self-selected diary items varied widely. Participants deemed the method acceptable. CONCLUSIONS: Daily monitoring is feasible for individuals with a mild intellectual disability or borderline intellectual functioning receiving ambulatory or residential care, and can provide scientists and practitioners with important insights into day-to-day behavioural patterns.

From Metaphor to Computation: Constructing the Potential Landscape for Multivariate Psychological Formal Models.

For psychological formal models, the stability of different phases is an important property for understanding individual differences and change processes. Many researchers use landscapes as a metaphor to illustrate the concept of stability, but so far there is no method to quantify the stability of a system's phases. We here propose a method to construct the potential landscape for multivariate psychological models. This method is based on the generalized potential function defined by Wang et al. (2008) and Monte Carlo simulation. Based on potential landscapes we define three different types of stability for psychological phases: absolute stability, relative stability, and geometric stability. The panic disorder model by Robinaugh et al. (2019) is used as an example, to demonstrate how the method can be used to quantify the stability of states and phases, illustrate the influence of model parameters, and guide model modifications. An R package, simlandr, was developed to provide an implementation of the method.

Trajectories of Symptom Change in School-Based Prevention Programs for Adolescent Girls with Subclinical Depression.

Effectiveness research on depression prevention usually compares pre- to post-intervention outcomes across groups, but this aggregation across individuals may mask heterogeneity in symptom change trajectories. Hence, this study aimed to identify subgroups of adolescents with unique trajectories of change in a school-based depression prevention trial. It was also examined how trajectory membership was associated with the intervention conditions, depressive symptoms at 12-month follow-up, and baseline predictors. Hundred-ninety adolescent girls (Mage = 13.34; range = 11-16 years) with subclinical depression at screening (M = 57 days before pre-test) were allocated to four conditions: a face-to-face, group-based program (OVK), a computerized, individual program (SPARX), OVK and SPARX combined, and a monitoring control condition. Growth Mixture Modeling was used to identify the distinct trajectories during the intervention period using weekly depressive symptom assessments from pre-test to post-test. Analyses revealed three trajectories of change in the full sample: Moderate-Declining (62.1% of the sample), High-Persistent (31.1%), and Deteriorating-Declining (6.8%) trajectories. Trajectories were unrelated to the intervention conditions and the High-Persistent trajectory had worse outcomes at follow-up. Several baseline factors (depression severity, age, acceptance, rumination, catastrophizing, and self-efficacy) enabled discrimination between trajectories. It is concluded that information about likely trajectory membership may enable (school) clinicians to predict an individual's intervention response and timely adjust and tailor intervention strategies as needed.

The Effect of Expectations on Experiences and Engagement with an Applied Game for Mental Health.

Objective: Applied games are considered a promising approach to deliver mental health interventions. Nonspecific factors such as expectations and motivation may be crucial to optimize effectiveness yet have not been examined so far. The current study examined the effect of expectations for improvement on (1) experienced fun and positive affect, and (2) in-game play behaviors while playing MindLight, an applied game shown to reduce anxiety. The secondary aim was to examine the moderating role of symptom severity and motivation to change. Materials and Methods: Fifty-seven participants (47 females; 17-21 years old) preselected on anxiety symptoms viewed a trailer in which MindLight was promoted as either a mental health or an entertainment game. These trailers were used to induce different expectations in participants. Participants subsequently played the game for 60 minutes. Before playing, participants filled out questionnaires about their general anxiety symptoms, motivation to change, state anxiety, affect, and arousal. While playing, in-game behaviors and galvanic skin response (GSR) were recorded continuously. After playing, state anxiety, affect, and arousal were measured again as well as experienced fun. Results: Participants in both trailer conditions showed increases in state anxiety, arousal, and GSR. Expectations did not influence experienced fun and positive affect, nor in-game behaviors. In addition, no moderation effects of motivation to change and symptom severity were found. Conclusion: Experiences and engagement with MindLight were not influenced by expectations, motivation to change, and symptom severity. For future research, it is recommended to examine individual differences in these effects, and long-term and more distal outcomes and processes.

From Wellbeing to Social Media and Back: A Multi-Method Approach to Assessing the Bi-Directional Relationship Between Wellbeing and Social Media Use.

Literature concerning the relationship between social media use and wellbeing is inconsistent in its findings, and most research has focused on time spent on social media rather than on what emerging adults do there, with whom and why. Here, we investigated whether momentary social stress affects emerging adults' social media use, and whether this social media use relates to subsequent changes in wellbeing. We implemented a multi-method paradigm utilising objective and self-report data to investigate how social stress relates to how (much) and why emerging adults use social media. We report on findings based on 114 17-25-year-old emerging adults recruited on university campus. Our findings suggest that social stress does not affect adolescents' subsequent social media use and that there is no relationship between social media use after stress and changes in momentary wellbeing. Our work illustrates the need for detailed approaches in social media and psychological wellbeing research.

Complexity in psychological self-ratings: implications for research and practice.

BACKGROUND: Psychopathology research is changing focus from group-based "disease models" to a personalized approach inspired by complex systems theories. This approach, which has already produced novel and valuable insights into the complex nature of psychopathology, often relies on repeated self-ratings of individual patients. So far, it has been unknown whether such self-ratings, the presumed observables of the individual patient as a complex system, actually display complex dynamics. We examine this basic assumption of a complex systems approach to psychopathology by testing repeated self-ratings for three markers of complexity: memory, the presence of (time-varying) short- and long-range temporal correlations; regime shifts, transitions between different dynamic regimes; and sensitive dependence on initial conditions, also known as the "butterfly effect," the divergence of initially similar trajectories. METHODS: We analyzed repeated self-ratings (1476 time points) from a single patient for the three markers of complexity using Bartels rank test, (partial) autocorrelation functions, time-varying autoregression, a non-stationarity test, change point analysis, and the Sugihara-May algorithm. RESULTS: Self-ratings concerning psychological states (e.g., the item "I feel down") exhibited all complexity markers: time-varying short- and long-term memory, multiple regime shifts, and sensitive dependence on initial conditions. Unexpectedly, self-ratings concerning physical sensations (e.g., the item "I am hungry") exhibited less complex dynamics and their behavior was more similar to random variables. CONCLUSIONS: Psychological self-ratings display complex dynamics. The presence of complexity in repeated self-ratings means that we have to acknowledge that (1) repeated self-ratings yield a complex pattern of data and not a set of (nearly) independent data points, (2) humans are "moving targets" whose self-ratings display non-stationary change processes including regime shifts, and (3) long-term prediction of individual trajectories may be fundamentally impossible. These findings point to a limitation of popular statistical time series models whose assumptions are violated by the presence of these complexity markers. We conclude that a complex systems approach to mental health should appreciate complexity as a fundamental aspect of psychopathology research by adopting the models and methods of complexity science. Promising first steps in this direction, such as research on real-time process monitoring, short-term prediction, and just-in-time interventions, are discussed.

Temporal dynamics of sitting behavior at work.

Sitting for prolonged periods of time impairs people's health. Prior research has mainly investigated sitting behavior on an aggregate level, for example, by analyzing total sitting time per day. By contrast, taking a dynamic approach, here we conceptualize sitting behavior as a continuous chain of sit-to-stand and stand-to-sit transitions. We use multilevel time-to-event analysis to analyze the timing of these transitions. We analyze ∼30,000 objectively measured posture transitions from 156 people during work time. Results indicate that the temporal dynamics of sit-to-stand transitions differ from stand-to-sit transitions, and that people are quicker to switch postures later in the workday, and quicker to stand up after having been more active in the recent hours. We found no evidence for associations with physical fitness. Altogether, these findings provide insights into the origins of people's stand-up and sit-down decisions, show that sitting behavior is fundamentally different from exercise behavior, and provide pointers for the development of interventions.

Efficacy of a Virtual Reality Biofeedback Game (DEEP) to Reduce Anxiety and Disruptive Classroom Behavior: Single-Case Study.

BACKGROUND: Many adolescents in special education are affected by anxiety in addition to their behavioral problems. Anxiety leads to substantial long-term problems and may underlie disruptive behaviors in the classroom as a result of the individual's inability to tolerate anxiety-provoking situations. Thus, interventions in special needs schools that help adolescents cope with anxiety and, in turn, diminish disruptive classroom behaviors are needed. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of a virtual reality biofeedback game, DEEP, on daily levels of state-anxiety and disruptive classroom behavior in a clinical sample. In addition, the study also aimed to examine the duration of the calm or relaxed state after playing DEEP. METHODS: A total of 8 adolescents attending a special secondary school for students with behavioral and psychiatric problems participated in a single-case experimental ABAB study. Over a 4-week period, participants completed 6 DEEP sessions. In addition, momentary assessments (ie, 3 times a day) of self-reported state-anxiety and teacher-reported classroom behavior were collected throughout all A and B phases. RESULTS: From analyzing the individual profiles, it was found that 6 participants showed reductions in anxiety, and 5 participants showed reductions in disruptive classroom behaviors after the introduction of DEEP. On a group level, results showed a small but significant reduction of anxiety (d=-0.29) and a small, nonsignificant reduction of disruptive classroom behavior (d=-0.16) on days when participants played DEEP. Moreover, it was found that the calm or relaxed state of participants after playing DEEP lasted for about 2 hours on average. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the potential of the game, DEEP, as an intervention for anxiety and disruptive classroom behavior in a special school setting. Future research is needed to fully optimize and personalize DEEP as an intervention for the heterogeneous special school population.

A Stimulated Recall Method for the Improved Assessment of Quantity and Quality of Social Media Use.

BACKGROUND: Social media are as popular as ever, and concerns regarding the effects of social media use on adolescent well-being and mental health have sparked many scientific studies into use effects. Social media research is currently at an important crossroads: conflicting results on social media use's effects on well-being are abundant, and recent work in the field suggests that a new approach is required. The field is in need of an approach involving objective data regarding use where necessary and attention to different kinds of detail such as the why and how of social media use. OBJECTIVE: We present a novel paradigm implementing a principle from educational sciences called stimulated recall and demonstrate how it can be applied to social media use research. Our stimulated recall paradigm implements a number of elements that can fill the gaps currently present in social media and well-being research. METHODS: Objective data are collected regarding users' social media behaviors through video footage and in-phone data and used for a structured stimulated recall interview to facilitate detailed and context-sensitive processing of these objective data. In this interview, objective data are reviewed with the participant in an act of co-research, in which details such as the reasons for their use (eg, boredom) and processes surrounding their use (eg, with whom) are discussed and visualized in a stimulated recall chart. RESULTS: Our ongoing study (N=53) implementing this paradigm suggests this method is experienced as pleasant by participants in spite of its personal and intensive nature. CONCLUSIONS: The stimulated recall paradigm offers interesting and necessary avenues for approaching social media use research from new angles, addressing aspects of use that have thus far remained underexposed. The answers to questions such as "Why do adolescents use social media?" "In what ways exactly do they use social media?" and "How does social media use make them feel in the moment?" are now within reach, an important step forward in the field of social media use and well-being research.

Destabilization in self-ratings of the psychotherapeutic process is associated with better treatment outcome in patients with mood disorders.

Objective: While destabilization periods characterized by high variability and turbulence in a patient's psychological state might seem obstructive for psychotherapy, a complex systems approach to psychopathology predicts that these periods are actually beneficial as they indicate possibilities for reorganization within the patient. The present study tested the hypothesis that destabilization is related to better treatment outcome.Method: 328 patients who received psychotherapy for mood disorders completed daily self-ratings about their psychotherapeutic process. A continuous measure of destabilization was defined as the relative strength of the highest peak in dynamic complexity, a measure for variability and turbulence, in the self-ratings of individual patients.Results: Destabilization was found to be related to better treatment outcome. When improvers and non-improvers were analyzed separately, destabilization was found to be related to better treatment outcome in improvers but not in non-improvers.Conclusions: Destabilization in daily self-ratings of the psychotherapeutic process is associated with better treatment outcome. The identification of destabilization periods in process-monitoring data is clinically relevant. During destabilization, patients are believed to be increasingly sensitive to the effects of therapy. Clinicians could tailor their interventions to these sensitive periods.

Can a Commercial Video Game Prevent Depression? Null Results and Whole Sample Action Mechanisms in a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Depressive symptoms and disorders are major public health concerns, affecting many adolescents and young adults. Despite extensive research, depression prevention programs for youth show limited effectiveness. Moreover, the maximal potential of youth psychotherapy - on which depression prevention programs are based - may have been reached. Commercial video games may offer an engaging alternative vehicle for youth to practice emotional and social skills vital to mental health. The current study investigated the potential for the commercial video game Journey to prevent the exacerbation of depressive symptoms. A pre-registered randomized controlled trial tested the effectiveness of Journey as an indicated depression prevention approach compared to a control game condition and a passive control condition (Dutch Trial Register: NL4873, https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/4873). Additionally, potential action mechanisms for depression prevention using video games were examined. Participants aged 15 to 20 years old with elevated depressive symptoms (n = 244, M age = 17.11, SD age = 1.76, 66.4% female) were given 4 weeks to play Journey (M duration = 3 h 20 min) or the control game, Flower (M duration = 2 h 36 min). Results showed no beneficial effects of playing the commercial video game, Journey, on youth's change in depressive symptoms above and beyond the active and passive control conditions up to 12-months after the intervention. Additionally, no action mechanisms were found specifically for Journey. Nevertheless, over the whole study, participants decreased in depressive symptoms, became less sensitive to rejection, and experienced more hope and optimism. Moreover, participants who during the study decreased in rejection sensitivity or rumination or who increased in hope and optimism or in distraction and problem solving showed the strongest decrease in depressive symptoms. Although results do not support the use of the studied commercial game as an effective indicated depression prevention strategy, our results do suggest that rejection sensitivity, hope, optimism, rumination, distraction, and problem solving are promising targets for future depression prevention efforts. We conclude with important lessons for future research on games to promote mental health. Particularly, encouraging careful consideration of research designs to explore for whom and how potential action mechanisms and associated game mechanics may be effective.

The Therapy Process Questionnaire - Factor analysis and psychometric properties of a multidimensional self-rating scale for high-frequency monitoring of psychotherapeutic processes.

Many outcome measures and session-related questionnaires in psychotherapy are designed for weekly or biweekly administration. Yet, today, technical developments allow for higher frequency assessments to monitor human change dynamics more closely by daily assessments. For this purpose, the Therapy Process Questionnaire (TPQ) was developed, with a specific focus on inpatient psychotherapy. In this article, we present an explorative and confirmative factor analysis of the TPQ on the basis of the time series data of 150 patients collected during their hospital stay (mean time series length: 69.1 measurement points). A seven-factor solution was identified, which explains 68.7% of variance and associates 43 items onto the factors, which are "well-being and positive emotions," "relationship with fellow patients," "therapeutic relationship and clinical setting," "emotional and problem intensity," "insight/confidence/therapeutic progress," "motivation for change," and "mindfulness/self-care." The internal consistency (Cronbach's α), the inter-item correlations of the subscales, and the discriminative power of the items are excellent. The TPQ can be applied in practice and research for creating time series with equidistant measurement points and time series lengths, which are appropriate for the application of nonlinear analysis methods. Especially in clinical practice, it is important to identify precursors of phase transitions, changing synchronization patterns, and critical or instable periods of a process, which now is possible by internet- or app-based applications of this multidimensional questionnaire.

Are changes in children's communication patterns predictive of treatment outcomes for children with anxiety?

Anxiety is the most prevalent childhood psychopathology. Cognitive behavioural therapy is considered the most effective treatment, but outcomes remain variable. This study investigated children's communication patterns in child-therapist conversations and whether changes in these patterns, from rigid to more flexible, were associated with better treatment outcomes. Fifty-three children (31% boys), with a mean age in years of M = 9.68 (SD = 1.85), completed a 12-week cognitive behavioural therapy program. Maternal as well as children's reports of children's anxiety were assessed pretreatment and posttreatment. Additionally, 15-min segments of two therapy sessions were audiotaped and children's conversational turns were coded for properties of response and initiative. The structure of children's communication patterns was further quantified using recurrence quantification analysis. As expected children entering treatment were characterised by rigid and inhibited conversational behaviour. Children who became less repetitive and deterministic over time had better maternal-rated treatment outcomes. These findings did not generalize to child reports. Last, the hypothesis that the positive relation between the breaking of rigid communication patterns and treatment outcome would be mediated by increases in proactive conversational behaviours of the child was only partly supported. These study findings contribute to the emergent literature on processes of change in childhood anxiety treatment by providing initial support for the hypothesis that breaking rigid (communication) patterns may be a prerequisite of clinical change.

Emotion regulation in action: Use, selection, and success of emotion regulation in adolescents' daily lives.

Successful emotion regulation (ER) is a central aspect of psychosocial functioning and mental health and is thought to improve and be refined in adolescence. Past research on ER has mainly focused on one-time measurements of habitual ER. Linking regulatory strategies to emotions in daily lives is key to understanding adolescents' emotional lives. Using an Experience Sampling Method with 78 adolescents (M age = 13.91, SDage = .95, 66% girls), we investigated the use, selection, and success in down-regulating negative emotions of eight ER strategies across 44 assessments. Acceptance was the strategy employed most often followed by problem-solving, rumination, distraction, avoidance, reappraisal, social support, and suppression. Interestingly, negativity of the event influenced the use of ER strategies: With low intensity negative emotions, acceptance was more likely to be used, and with high intensity negative emotions, suppression, problem-solving, distraction, avoidance, social support, and rumination were more likely to be used. With regard to success, multilevel models revealed that problem-solving, reappraisal, and acceptance were more successful in down-regulating negative emotions than rumination. Further, among girls, no relations between the momentary use of ER strategies and depressive symptoms was found. Among boys, a negative relation between acceptance and depressive symptoms emerged. Results from this study suggest that there is a reciprocal relationship between the intensity of negative emotions and ER strategies and that gender differences may exist. Taken together, this study showed which ER strategies are used by a healthy adolescent sample, and these results are discussed with regard to their theoretical and practical importance.

Therapeutic Chaos.

The conventional view on interventions as mechanistically causing interchangeable clients to get better has come under attack. Group-based and linear approaches fall short in adequately describing the idiosyncratic and dynamic nature of treatment processes. Non-linear dynamic system theories in contrast hold great potential to better conceptualize and understand the generalities and idiosyncrasies of psychotherapeutic change processes. The aim of this study was to examine whether we can detect markers of complex dynamical systems behavior in two single-case therapies. All sessions from both therapies were coded with sequential plan analysis using a 10s sampling frequency. The coding system incorporates verbal and non-verbal behaviors and allows for the representation of contextualized interactive behaviors. The high sampling frequency results in long time series, which allowed us to apply non-linear analysis techniques. We found strong support for complex behavior and the existence of a butterfly effect, i.e., a relatively short prediction horizon in which reliable predictions about the system's future behavior could be made. Further, critical fluctuations as a marker for phase-transitions were detected that were accompanied with different interactional patterns in both therapies. Finally, there was strong support for self-organized pattern formation, with a few interactional patterns dominating the interaction. Considering that we are intervening on complex dynamical systems means that we have to (1) acknowledge the principal individuality of change processes, (2) accept the fundamental limitations of the mechanistic input-output model of treatment effects and (3) appreciate the impossibility of long-term predictions of treatment responses.