Random-modulated pulse lidar using a gain-switched semiconductor laser with a delayed self-homodyne interferometer.

We propose the generation of random-modulated pulses using a gain-switched semiconductor laser with a delayed self-homodyne interferometer (DSHI) for lidar applications. By emitting non-repetitive random-modulated pulses, ambiguity in ranging and interference in detection can be mitigated. When gain-switched, the wavelength of the laser fluctuates abruptly at the beginning of the pulse and then drops until it stabilizes toward its continuous-wave (CW) state. By beating the two pulses with instantaneous frequency detuning from the DSHI, pulses consisting of random and down-chirped modulations can be generated without any complex code generation and modulation. In this study, we investigate the waveforms and spectra of the random-modulated pulses generated under various homodyne delay lengths, switching currents, and pulsewidths. We characterize their signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), precision, and cross-correlation between consecutive pulses to evaluate their performance in lidar applications. For a good SNR of over 12 dB, the generated pulses have an optimal precision of approximately 1 mm in ranging, which is substantially better than the chaos-modulated pulses generated based on laser feedback dynamics. By establishing a random-modulated pulse lidar based on the proposed gain-switched homodyne scheme, we successfully demonstrate 3D imaging and profiling with good precision.

3D chaos lidar system with a pulsed master oscillator power amplifier scheme.

We investigated the characteristics of chaos-modulated pulses amplified by a pulsed master oscillator power amplifier (MOPA) for application in a new chaos lidar system in this study. Compared with the loss modulation applied in a continuous-wave (CW) time-gating scheme, the pulsed MOPA scheme could generate chaos-modulated pulses with much higher peak power, resulting in an improved peak-to-standard deviation of sidelobe level (PSLstd) in correlation-based lidar detection. When the pulsed MOPA scheme was applied at a duty cycle of 0.1% and pulse repetition frequency of 20 kHz, which correspond to specifications compliant with eye safety regulations, it outperformed the CW time-gating scheme with respect to PSLstd by 15 dB. For the first time, we applied the chaos lidar system with the pulsed MOPA scheme to execute high-resolution, high-precision three-dimensional (3D) face profiling from a distance of 5 m. We also added the corresponding PSLstd value to each pixel in the point clouds to generate false-color images; thus, we obtained 3D images of a scene with multiple objects at a range of up to 20 m.

Generations of chaos-modulated pulses based on a gain-switched semiconductor laser subject to delay-synchronized optical feedback for pulsed chaos lidar applications.

We generate and analyze chaos-modulated pulses based on a gain-switched semiconductor laser subject to delay-synchronized optical feedback for pulsed chaos lidar applications. Benefited by the aperiodic and uncorrelated chaos waveforms, chaos lidar possesses the advantages of no range ambiguity and immunity to interference and jamming. To improve the detection range while in compliance with the eye-safe regulation, generating chaos-modulated pulses with higher peak power rather than chaos in its CW form is desired. While using an acousto-optic modulator to time-gate the CW chaos into pulses could be lossy and energy inefficient, in this paper, we study the generation of chaos-modulated pulses using a gain-switched laser subject to delay-synchronized optical feedback. Under different feedback strengths and modulation currents of gain-switching, we investigate the quality of the chaos-modulated pulses generated by analyzing their ratio of chaos oscillations, peak sidelobe levels (PSLs), and cross-correlation peaks under different mismatching conditions between the pulse repetition interval (PRI) and the feedback time delay τ. With proper feedback strengths and modulation currents, we find that synchronizing the gain-switching modulation with the delayed feedback (PRI = τ) is essential in generating the chaos-modulated pulses suitable for the pulsed chaos lidar applications. When mismatching occurs, we identify sequences of dynamical periods including stable, periodic, and chaos oscillations evolved within a pulse.

Generation of random on-off modulation pulses by optically injecting a gain-switched Fabry-Pérot semiconductor laser with a dual-mode injection for random-modulation pulsed lidar applications.

We study the generation of random on-off modulation pulses by optically injecting a gain-switched Fabry-Pérot semiconductor laser with a dual-mode injection for random-modulation pulsed lidar applications. In the dual-mode injection scheme proposed, the first master laser (ML1) injecting on a resonant sidemode of the gain-switched slave laser (SL) randomly locks such injected sidemode and suppresses the output pulses in the center mode through gain-competition. The second master laser (ML2) injecting on the center mode then stabilizes and enhances the output pulses to have equal amplitudes suitable for digital threshold detection and time-correlated single photon counting. Under different injection conditions, we identify dynamical states including unlocked, stable locking, bistable, and instability. By operating the laser in the bistable states randomly switching between the unlocked and stable locking states, we successfully generate random on-off modulation pulses without employing any digital circuits or external modulators. We analyze the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and detection probability of the proposed scheme to show its feasibility in random-modulation pulsed lidar applications. Moreover, we study its anti-interference capability by adding interference from additional channels with similar modulated pulses. We show that, with injection strengths of 0.418 and 0.038 from the ML1 and ML2 and a correlation length Tc = 90 µs, a detection probability of 1 can be readily achieved even under the interference from more than 49 additional channels.

Experimental generation and analysis of chaos-modulated pulses for pulsed chaos lidar applications based on gain-switched semiconductor lasers subject to optical feedback.

We experimentally generate and analyze chaos-modulated pulses for pulsed chaos lidar applications based on gain-switched semiconductor lasers subject to optical feedback. While conventional pulsed lidars emit repetitive short pulses without specificity making them vulnerable to interference and range ambiguity, chaos lidars possess the advantages of having no range ambiguity and being immune to interference and jamming, which are benefits of the aperiodic and uncorrelated waveforms we use. Compared to the cw chaos lidars originally proposed, the pulsed chaos lidars can have significantly higher peak power under the class-1 eye-safe regulation that is essential for long-range low-reflectivity target detection. We investigate the temporal, spectral, and cross-correlation characteristics of the modulated pulses obtained with different feedback strengths and modulation currents. Induced by the transient response and evolving with the delayed feedback, modulated pulses exhibiting periodic oscillations and complex dynamics such as chaos are observed. Under a weakly damped condition with large modulation current and moderate feedback strength, we successfully generate uncorrelated chaos-modulated pulses suitable for the pulsed chaos lidar applications. With the current configuration, for cross-correlations comparable to the benchmark of 0.19 set by the cross-correlation of the intensity fluctuation on the sole gain-switched pulses without feedback, uncorrelated waveforms with durations up to 218 ns in a 500 ns modulated pulse can be effectively utilized.

3D pulsed chaos lidar system.

We develop an unprecedented 3D pulsed chaos lidar system for potential intelligent machinery applications. Benefited from the random nature of the chaos, conventional CW chaos lidars already possess excellent anti-jamming and anti-interference capabilities and have no range ambiguity. In our system, we further employ self-homodyning and time gating to generate a pulsed homodyned chaos to boost the energy-utilization efficiency. Compared to the original chaos, we show that the pulsed homodyned chaos improves the detection SNR by more than 20 dB. With a sampling rate of just 1.25 GS/s that has a native sampling spacing of 12 cm, we successfully achieve millimeter-level accuracy and precision in ranging. Compared with two commercial lidars tested side-by-side, namely the pulsed Spectroscan and the random-modulation continuous-wave Lidar-lite, the pulsed chaos lidar that is in compliance with the class-1 eye-safe regulation shows significantly better precision and a much longer detection range up to 100 m. Moreover, by employing a 2-axis MEMS mirror for active laser scanning, we also demonstrate real-time 3D imaging with errors of less than 4 mm in depth.

Multimode optical feedback dynamics in InAs/GaAs quantum dot lasers emitting exclusively on ground or excited states: transition from short- to long-delay regimes.

The optical feedback dynamics of two multimode InAs/GaAs quantum dot lasers emitting exclusively on sole ground or excited lasing states is investigated. The transition from long- to short-delay regimes is analyzed, while the boundaries associated to the birth of periodic and chaotic oscillations are unveiled to be a function of the external cavity length. The results show that depending on the initial lasing state, different routes to chaos are observed. These results are of importance for the development of isolator-free transmitters in short-reach networks.

Comparison of optical feedback dynamics of InAs/GaAs quantum-dot lasers emitting solely on ground or excited states.

We experimentally compare the dynamics of InAs/GaAs quantum dot lasers under optical feedback emitting exclusively on ground states (GSs) or excited states (ESs). By varying the feedback parameters and putting focus either on their short or long cavity regions, various periodic and chaotic oscillatory states are found. The GS laser is shown to be more resistant to feedback, benefiting from its strong relaxation oscillation damping. In contrast, the ES laser can easily be driven into complex dynamics. While the GS laser is of importance for the development of isolator-free transmitters, the ES laser is essential for applications taking advantages of chaos.

Stability of period-one (P1) oscillations generated by semiconductor lasers subject to optical injection or optical feedback.

We study the stability of period-one (P1) oscillations experimentally generated by semiconductor lasers subject to optical injection (OI) and by those subject to optical feedback (OF). With unique advantages of broad frequency tuning range and large sideband rejection ratio, P1 oscillations can be useful in applications such as photonic microwave generation, radio-over-fiber communication, and laser Doppler velocimeter. The stability of the P1 oscillations is critical for these applications, which can be affected by spontaneous emission and fluctuations in both temperature and injection current. Although linewidths of P1 oscillations generated by various schemes have been reported, the mechanisms and roles which each of the OI and the OF play have however not been investigated in detail. To characterize the stability of the P1 oscillations generated by the OI and the OF schemes, we measure the linewidths and linewidth reduction ratios (LRRs) of the P1 oscillations. The OF scheme has a narrowest linewidth of 0.21 ± 0.03 MHz compared to 4.7 ± 0.6 MHz in the OI scheme. In the OF scheme, a much larger region of LRRs higher than 90% is also found. The superior stability of the OF scheme is benefited by the fact that the P1 oscillations in the OF scheme are originated from the undamped relaxation oscillation of a single laser and can be phase-locked to one of its external cavity modes, whereas those in the OI scheme come from two independent lasers which bear no phase relation. Moreover, excess P1 linewidth broadening in the OI scheme caused by fluctuation in injection parameters associated with frequency jitter and relative intensity noise (RIN) is also minimized in the OF scheme.

Reconfigurable liquid-core/liquid-cladding optical waveguides with dielectrophoresis-driven virtual microchannels on an electromicrofluidic platform.

An electrically reconfigurable liquid-core/liquid-cladding (L(2)) optical waveguide with core liquid γ-butyrolactone (GBL, ncore = 1.4341, εcore = 39) and silicone oil (ncladding = 1.401, εcladding = 2.5) as cladding liquid is accomplished using dielectrophoresis (DEP) that attracts and deforms the core liquid with the greater permittivity to occupy the region of strong electric field provided by Teflon-coated ITO electrodes between parallel glass plates. Instead of continuously flowing core and cladding liquids along a physical microchannel, the DEP-formed L(2) optical waveguide guides light in a stationary virtual microchannel that requires liquids of limited volume without constant supply and creates stable liquid/liquid interfaces for efficient light guidance in a simply fabricated microfluidic device. We designed and examined (1) stationary and (2) moving L(2) optical waveguides on the parallel-plate electromicrofluidic platform. In the stationary L-shaped waveguide, light was guided in a GBL virtual microchannel core for a total of 27.85 mm via a 90° bend (radius 5 mm) before exiting from the light outlet of cross-sectional area 100 µm × 100 µm. For the stationary spiral waveguide, light was guided in a GBL core containing Rhodamine 6G (R6G, 1 mM) and through a series of 90° bends with decreasing radii from 5 mm to 2.5 mm. With the stationary straight waveguide, the propagation loss was measured to be 2.09 dB cm(-1) in GBL with R6G (0.01 mM). The moving L-shaped waveguide was implemented on a versatile electromicrofluidic platform on which electrowetting and DEP were employed to generate a precise GBL droplet and form a waveguide core. On sequentially applying appropriate voltage to one of three parallel L-shaped driving electrodes, the GBL waveguide core was shifted; the guided light was switched at a speed of up to 0.929 mm s(-1) (switching period 70 ms, switching rate 14.3 Hz) when an adequate electric signal (173.1 VRMS, 100 kHz) was applied.

Single-sideband photonic microwave generation with an optically injected quantum-dot semiconductor laser.

We studied single-sideband (SSB) photonic microwave generation with a high sideband rejection ratio (SRR) based on the period-one dynamical states of an optically injected quantum-dot (QD) semiconductor laser and demonstrated that the SSB signals have SRRs of approximately 15 dB higher than those generated with a conventional quantum-well semiconductor laser under conditions of optimal microwave power. The enhancement of SRR in the QD laser, which is important in mitigating the power penalty effect in applications such as radio-over-fiber optical communications, could be primarily attributed to a lower carrier decay rate in the dots, smaller linewidth enhancement factor, and reduced photon decay rate.

Chaos time delay signature suppression and bandwidth enhancement by electrical heterodyning.

We numerically investigated the chaos time delay signature (TDS) suppression and bandwidth enhancement by electrical heterodyning. Chaos signals generated with a semiconductor laser subject to optical feedback typically have distinct loop frequency peaks in their power spectra corresponding to the reciprocals of the time delays, which deteriorates the performance in applications including chaos radar/lidar and fast random bit generation. By electrically heterodyning the chaos signal with a single frequency local oscillator, we show that the power in the chaos spectrum can be redistributed and a smoother spectrum with a broader effective bandwidth can be obtained. Compared with the chaos directly generated from a semiconductor laser subject to optical feedback, the amplitudes of the TDS (ρ(TDS)) measured under different feedback strengths can be suppressed up to 63% and the effective bandwidths can be enhanced up to 46% in average after the electrical heterodyning is applied.

Self-mixing dual-frequency laser Doppler velocimeter.

A self-mixing (SM) dual-frequency (DF) laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) (SM DF-LDV) is proposed and studied, which integrates the advantages of both the SM-LDV and the DF-LDV. An optically injected semiconductor laser operated in a dual-frequency period-one (P1) dynamical state is used as the light source. By probing the target with the light-carried microwave generated from the beat of the two optical frequency components, the spectral broadening in the Doppler signal due to the speckle noise can be significantly reduced. Together with an SM configuration, the SM DF-LDV has the advantages of direction discriminability, self-alignment, high sensitivity, and compact setup. In this study, speckle noise reduction and direction discriminability with an SM DF-LDV are demonstrated. The signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) at different feedback powers are investigated. Benefiting from the high sensitivity of the SM configuration, an SNR of 23 dB is achieved without employing an avalanched photodetector or photomultiplier tube. The velocity resolution and the SNR under different speckle noise conditions are studied. Average velocity resolution of 0.42 mm/s and SNR of 22.1 dB are achieved when a piece of paper is rotating at a transverse velocity of 5 m/s. Compared with a conventional single-frequency LDV (SF-LDV), the SM DF-LDV shows improvements of 20-fold in the velocity resolution and 8 dB in the SNR.

Linewidth enhancement factor in semiconductor lasers subject to various external optical feedback conditions.

The linewidth enhancement factor α of a semiconductor laser under the influences of optical feedback with different feedback strengths, external cavity lengths, and feedback phases are studied both experimentally and theoretically. The value of α is determined from the minimum of the Hopf bifurcation curve when the laser is subject to both optical feedback and optical injection. In the experiment, a pellicle beamsplitter mounted on a PZT stage placed on a linear translation stage is used as the reflector, where the external cavity length can be adjusted continuously from the long cavity regime to the short cavity regime with phase accuracy. With a moderate feedback strength, α is found to increase as the feedback strength increases. Moreover, while α is insensitive to the feedback phase in the long cavity regime, it can be tuned continuously in the short cavity regime when varying the phase. A normalized variation range of 21.59% is obtained experimentally at an external cavity length of 1.5 cm, which can be further enhanced by shortening the external cavity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first detailed study of α from the long to the short cavity regime in a semiconductor laser subject to optical feedback. More particularly, the continuous tuning of α under phase variation is demonstrated the first time.

Four-wave mixing analysis on injection-locked quantum dot semiconductor lasers.

We derive a simplified rate equation model for the four-wave mixing (FWM) analysis on quantum dot (QD) semiconductor lasers subject to optical injection. The regenerative and the amplitude modulation spectra of the FWM signals with different intrinsic laser parameters and external injection conditions are investigated. By curve fitting the regenerative and the amplitude modulation spectra obtained experimentally, the intrinsic parameters of a commercial single-mode QD laser under different injection conditions are extracted. The linewidth enhancement factor α at different injection levels and detunings are shown, where a reduction of up to 39% from its free-running value is demonstrated. By increasing the injection strength, the α can be further reduced to minimized the chirp in optical communications.

Dynamical characteristics and their applications of semiconductor lasers subject to both optical injection and optical feedback.

We experimentally investigate the dynamical characteristics of semiconductor lasers subject to both the optical injection (OI) and the optical feedback (OF). By coupling the OI and the OF lights into the same fiber before injecting into the slave laser (SL), the ratio between the two perturbations can be accurately determined and controlled. The frequency shifts in the cavity resonance frequency of the SL (νSL) induced by the OI and the OF lights are compared quantitatively. To study the competition between the OI and the OF in the SL, the mapping of the dynamical scenarios and states are plotted in the parameter space. This mapping serves as the guideline for choosing the appropriate operation conditions in various applications employing both the OI and the OF at the same time. In this paper, the suitable feedback strengths to narrow the linewidths of photonic microwave signals generated by the OI are studied. The limitation of using OI in enhancing the bandwidths of the chaos states generated by the OF is discussed. Moreover, to suppress the unwanted dynamics due to the feedback, the optimal injection parameters of the OI are shown.

Long-range parametric amplification of THz wave with absorption loss exceeding parametric gain.

Optical parametric mixing is a popular scheme to generate an idler wave at THz frequencies, although the THz wave is often absorbing in the nonlinear optical material. It is widely suggested that the useful material length for co-directional parametric mixing with strong THz-wave absorption is comparable to the THz-wave absorption length in the material. Here we show that, even in the limit of the absorption loss exceeding parametric gain, the THz idler wave can grows monotonically from optical parametric amplification over a much longer distance in a nonlinear optical material until pump depletion. The coherent production of the non-absorbing signal wave can assist the growth of the highly absorbing idler wave. We also show that, for the case of an equal input pump and signal in difference frequency generation, the quick saturation of the THz idler wave predicted from a much simplified and yet popular plane-wave model fails when fast diffraction of the THz wave from the co-propagating optical mixing waves is considered.

Dual-frequency laser Doppler velocimeter for speckle noise reduction and coherence enhancement.

We study the characteristics of a dual-frequency laser Doppler velocimeter (DF-LDV) based on an optically injected semiconductor laser. The laser operated in a period-one (P1) dynamical state with two optical frequencies separated by 11.25 GHz is used as the dual-frequency light source. With a microwave beat signal carried by the light, the DF-LDV possesses both the advantages of good directionality, high intensity, and high spatial resolution from the light and low speckle noise and good coherence from the microwave, respectively. By phase-locking the two frequency components with a microwave signal, the coherence of the dual-frequency light source can be further improved and the detection range can be much extended. In this paper, velocity resolutions of the DF-LDV with different amounts of speckle noise and at different detection ranges are experimentally measured and analyzed. Compared with the conventional single-frequency LDV (SF-LDV), the velocity resolution of the DF-LDV is improved by 8 × 10(3) times from 2.5 m/s to 0.31 mm/s for a target with a longitudinal velocity vz = 4 cm/s, a transverse velocity vt = 5 m/s, and at a detection range of 108 m.

Four-wave mixing analysis of quantum dot semiconductor lasers for linewidth enhancement factor extraction.

We apply a four-wave mixing analysis on a quantum dot laser to simultaneously obtain the linewidth enhancement factor α and other intrinsic laser parameters. By fitting the experimentally obtained regenerative signals and power spectra at different detuning frequencies with the respective curves analytically calculated from the rate equations, parameters including the linewidth enhancement factor, the carrier decay rate in the dots, the differential gain, and the photon decay rate can be determined all at once under the same operating conditions. In this paper, a theoretical model for the four-wave mixing analysis of the QD lasers is derived and verified. The sensitivity and accuracy of the parameter extraction using the four-wave mixing method are presented. Moreover, how each each parameters alter the shapes of the regenerative signals and the power spectra are also discussed.

Forward and backward THz-wave difference frequency generations from a rectangular nonlinear waveguide.

We report forward and backward THz-wave difference frequency generations at 197 and 469 µm from a PPLN rectangular crystal rod with an aperture of 0.5 (height in z) × 0.6 (width in y) mm(2) and a length of 25 mm in x. The crystal rod appears as a waveguide for the THz waves but as a bulk material for the optical mixing waves near 1.54 µm. We measured enhancement factors of 1.6 and 1.8 for the forward and backward THz-wave output powers, respectively, from the rectangular waveguide in comparison with those from a PPLN slab waveguide of the same length, thickness, and domain period under the same pump and signal intensity of 100 MW/cm(2).