Identification of a unique endoplasmic retention motif in the Xenopus GIRK5 channel and its contribution to oocyte maturation.

G protein-activated inward-rectifying potassium (K+ ) channels (Kir3/GIRK) participate in cell excitability. The GIRK5 channel is present in Xenopus laevis oocytes. In an attempt to investigate the physiological role of GIRK5, we identified a noncanonical di-arginine endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention motif (KRXY). This retention motif is located at the N-terminal region of GIRK5, coded by two small exons found only in X. laevis and X. tropicalis. These novel exons are expressed through use of an alternative transcription start site. Mutations in the sequence KRXY produced functional channels and induced progesterone-independent oocyte meiotic progression. The chimeric proteins enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP)-GIRK5-WT and the EGFP-GIRK5K13AR14A double mutant, were localized to the ER and the plasma membrane of the vegetal pole of the oocyte, respectively. Silencing of GIRK5 or blocking of this channel by external barium prevented progesterone-induced meiotic progression. The endogenous level of GIRK5 protein decreased through oocyte stages in prophase I augmenting by progesterone. In conclusion, we have identified a unique mechanism by which the expression pattern of a K+ channel evolved to control Xenopus oocyte maturation.

Metabolic acidosis and hyperkalemia differentially regulate cation HCN3 channel in the rat nephron.

The kidney controls body fluids, electrolyte and acid-base balance. Previously, we demonstrated that hyperpolarization-activated and cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) cation channels participate in ammonium excretion in the rat kidney. Since acid-base balance is closely linked to potassium metabolism, in the present work we aim to determine the effect of chronic metabolic acidosis (CMA) and hyperkalemia (HK) on protein abundance and localization of HCN3 in the rat kidney. CMA increased HCN3 protein level only in the outer medulla (2.74 ± 0.31) according to immunoblot analysis. However, immunofluorescence assays showed that HCN3 augmented in cortical proximal tubules (1.45 ± 0.11) and medullary thick ascending limb of Henle's loop (4.48 ± 0.45) from the inner stripe of outer medulla. HCN3 was detected in brush border membranes (BBM) and mitochondria of the proximal tubule by immunogold electron and confocal microscopy in control conditions. Acidosis did not alter HCN3 levels in BBM and mitochondria but augmented them in lysosomes. HCN3 was also immuno-detected in mitoautophagosomes. In the distal nephron, HCN3 was expressed in principal and intercalated cells from cortical to medullary collecting ducts. CMA did not change HCN3 abundance in these nephron segments. In contrast, HK doubled HCN3 level in cortical collecting ducts and favored its basolateral localization in principal cells from the inner medullary collecting ducts. These findings further support HCN channels contribution to renal acid-base and potassium balance.

"Funny" channels in cardiac mitochondria modulate membrane potential and oxygen consumption.

The hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are encoded by a family of four genes (HCN1-4). All isoforms are expressed in the heart, HCN4 being the most abundant in the sinoatrial node (SAN). HCN channels are responsible for the "funny" current (If) associated with the generation and autonomic control of the diastolic depolarization phase of cardiac action potential. In this work we performed a proteomic analysis of HCN4 transfected in HEK293 cells. Most of the identified proteins in the HCN4 network belonged to mitochondria. The subcellular localization of HCN channels was predicted in plasma membrane, mitochondria and nucleus. Experimentally, HCN2 (full-length, truncated), HCN3 (full-length, truncated) and HCN4 (truncated) were detected in rat heart mitochondria by immunoblotting. If sensitive to ZD7288, was recorded by patch-clamp in mitoplasts from cardiomyocytes. Mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) assessment in H9c2 cells revealed that ZD7288 induced almost 50% higher hyperpolarization respect to control at 30 min. Furthermore, ZD7288 reduced oxygen consumption attributed to ATP synthesis in H9c2 cells. In conclusion, we identify for the first time functional HCN channels in mammalian cardiac mitochondria and demonstrate their impact on ΔΨm and respiration.

Novel Potassium Channels in Kidney Mitochondria: The Hyperpolarization-Activated and Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated HCN Channels.

Hyperpolarization-activated cationic HCN channels comprise four members (HCN1-4) that control dendritic integration, synaptic transmission and action potential firing. In the kidney, HCN1, HCN2 and HCN3 are differentially expressed and contribute to the transport of sodium, potassium (K+) and ammonium into the nephrons. HCN3 is regulated by K+ diets in the kidney. In this work we performed a proteomic analysis of HCN3 expressed in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293 cells). More than 50% of the interacting proteins belonged to mitochondria. Therefore, we explored the presence of HCN channels in kidney mitochondria. By immunoblotting and immunogold electron microscopy HCN3 protein expression was found in rat kidney mitochondria; it was also confirmed in human kidney. Patch-clamp recordings of renal mitochondria and mitochondria from HEK293 cells overexpressing HCN1, HCN2 and HCN3 channels, stained with MitoTracker Green FM, indicated that only HCN3 could produce inwardly K+ currents that were inhibited by ZD7288, a specific blocker of HCN channels. Furthermore, ZD7288 caused inhibition of the oxygen consumption coupled to ATP synthesis and hyperpolarization of the inner mitochondrial membrane. In conclusion, we show for the first time that pacemaker HCN channels contribute to K+ transport in mitochondria facilitating the activity of the respiratory chain and ATP synthesis by controlling the inner mitochondrial membrane potential.

Immunolocalization of hyperpolarization-activated cationic HCN1 and HCN3 channels in the rat nephron: regulation of HCN3 by potassium diets.

Hyperpolarization-activated cationic and cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (HCN) comprise four homologous subunits (HCN1-HCN4). HCN channels are found in excitable and non-excitable tissues in mammals. We have previously shown that HCN2 may transport ammonium (NH4 (+)), besides sodium (Na(+)), in the rat distal nephron. In the present work, we identified HCN1 and HCN3 in the proximal tubule (PT) and HCN3 in the thick ascending limb of Henle (TALH) of the rat kidney. Immunoblot assays detected HCN1 (130 kDa) and HCN3 (90 KDa) and their truncated proteins C-terminal HCN1 (93 KDa) and N-terminal HCN3 (65 KDa) in enriched plasma membranes from cortex (CX) and outer medulla (OM), as well as in brush-border membrane vesicles. Immunofluorescence assays confirmed apical localization of HCN1 and HCN3 in the PT. HCN3 was also found at the basolateral membrane of TALH. We evaluated chronic changes in mineral dietary on HCN3 protein abundance. Animals were fed with three different diets: sodium-deficient (SD) diet, potassium-deficient (KD) diet, and high-potassium (HK) diet. Up-regulation of HCN3 was observed in OM by KD and in CX and OM by HK; the opposite effect occurred with the N-terminal truncated HCN3 in CX (KD) and OM (HK). SD diet did not produce any change. Since HCN channels activate with membrane hyperpolarization, our results suggest that HCN channels may play a role in the Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity, contributing to Na(+), K(+), and acid-base homeostasis in the rat kidney.