HBM4EU E-waste study: Assessing persistent organic pollutants in blood, silicone wristbands, and settled dust among E-waste recycling workers in Europe.

E-waste recycling is an increasingly important activity that contributes to reducing the burden of end-of-life electronic and electrical apparatus and allows for the EU's transition to a circular economy. This study investigated the exposure levels of selected persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in workers from e-waste recycling facilities across Europe. The concentrations of seven polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congeners were measured by GC-MS. Workers were categorized into five groups based on the type of e-waste handled and two control groups. Generalized linear models were used to assess the determinants of exposure levels among workers. POPs levels were also assessed in dust and silicone wristbands (SWB) and compared with serum. Four PCB congeners (CB 118, 138, 153, and 180) were frequently detected in serum regardless of worker's category. With the exception of CB 118, all tested PCBs were significantly higher in workers compared to the control group. Controls working in the same company as occupationally exposed (Within control group), also displayed higher levels of serum CB 180 than non-industrial controls with no known exposures to these chemicals (Outwith controls) (p < 0.05). BDE 209 was the most prevalent POP in settled dust (16 µg/g) and SWB (220 ng/WB). Spearman correlation revealed moderate to strong positive correlations between SWB and dust. Increased age and the number of years smoked cigarettes were key determinants for workers exposure. Estimated daily intake through dust ingestion revealed that ΣPCB was higher for both the 50th (0.03 ng/kg bw/day) and 95th (0.09 ng/kg bw/day) percentile exposure scenarios compared to values reported for the general population. This study is one of the first to address the occupational exposure to PCBs and PBDEs in Europe among e-waste workers through biomonitoring combined with analysis of settled dust and SWB. Our findings suggest that e-waste workers may face elevated PCB exposure and that appropriate exposure assessments are needed to establish effective mitigation strategies.

How to use human biomonitoring in chemical risk assessment: Methodological aspects, recommendations, and lessons learned from HBM4EU.

One of the aims of the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative, HBM4EU, was to provide examples of and good practices for the effective use of human biomonitoring (HBM) data in human health risk assessment (RA). The need for such information is pressing, as previous research has indicated that regulatory risk assessors generally lack knowledge and experience of the use of HBM data in RA. By recognising this gap in expertise, as well as the added value of incorporating HBM data into RA, this paper aims to support the integration of HBM into regulatory RA. Based on the work of the HBM4EU, we provide examples of different approaches to including HBM in RA and in estimations of the environmental burden of disease (EBoD), the benefits and pitfalls involved, information on the important methodological aspects to consider, and recommendations on how to overcome obstacles. The examples are derived from RAs or EBoD estimations made under the HBM4EU for the following HBM4EU priority substances: acrylamide, o-toluidine of the aniline family, aprotic solvents, arsenic, bisphenols, cadmium, diisocyanates, flame retardants, hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)], lead, mercury, mixture of per-/poly-fluorinated compounds, mixture of pesticides, mixture of phthalates, mycotoxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and the UV-filter benzophenone-3. Although the RA and EBoD work presented here is not intended to have direct regulatory implications, the results can be useful for raising awareness of possibly needed policy actions, as newly generated HBM data from HBM4EU on the current exposure of the EU population has been used in many RAs and EBoD estimations.

Occupational exposure to Cr(VI) in Finland in 1980-2016 and related lung cancer risk assessment.

Occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)], a known lung carcinogen, remains a relevant concern. When performing exposure assessment for risk assessment, biomonitoring is an important tool, reflecting actual internal exposure of workers. Here, we present total urinary chromium (U-Cr) biomonitoring data from several occupational sectors, spanning 1980-2016 (n > 42,000). Based on these data, we estimated lifelong (40-year) occupational lung cancer risks in the Cr-plating and welding sectors. We used published regression formulas to relate internal (U-Cr) and external Cr(VI) inhalation exposures, allowing risk assessment based on a published lung cancer dose-response. Generally, measured U-Cr levels decreased considerably over the study period. The overall highest U-Cr P95 levels (representing realistic worst-case) were measured in the interval 1980-1989 in casters, maintenance workers and welders (40-45 µg/L). By the interval 2010-2016, the U-Cr P95 had decreased to ≤9.5 µg/L in all studied sectors. Lifelong external Cr(VI) exposure estimation for 1980-2019 was 0.16-0.32 mg/m3 x year for platers and 1.03 mg/m3 x year for welders. Worst-case lifelong lung cancer relative risk (RR) estimates were 1.28-1.56 for platers and 2.80 for welders; attributable risks (AR) were 22-36% for platers and 64% for welders. Uncertainties that may have impacted the risk assessment are discussed.

Volatile Organic Compounds in Finnish Office Environments in 2010-2019 and Their Relevance to Adverse Health Effects.

We gathered recent (2010-2019) data on the VOC and formaldehyde levels in Finnish non-industrial indoor work environments. The data comprised 9789 VOC and 1711 formaldehyde samples collected from the indoor air of offices, schools, kindergartens, and healthcare offices. We assessed the health risks by comparing the measured concentrations to the health-based RW I/II and EU-LCI reference values. The concentrations of individual VOCs and formaldehyde in these work environments were generally very low and posed no health risks. Total VOC concentration (TVOC) as well as concentrations of several individual compounds, including aromatic compounds, alkanes, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, and formaldehyde, showed clearly decreasing trends. In contrast, several aldehydes, acids, and a few other compounds showed increasing trends. However, the increasing trends did not seem to affect the higher ends of the distributions, as the 95th percentile values remained fairly stable or decreased over the years. The VOC patterns in the environments of the offices, schools, kindergartens, and healthcare offices varied, probably reflecting the differences in typical activities and the use of materials. However, we do not expect these differences to be relevant to health outcomes.

HBM4EU Occupational Biomonitoring Study on e-Waste-Study Protocol.

Workers involved in the processing of electronic waste (e-waste) are potentially exposed to toxic chemicals. If exposure occurs, this may result in uptake and potential adverse health effects. Thus, exposure surveillance is an important requirement for health risk management and prevention of occupational disease. Human biomonitoring by measurement of specific biomarkers in body fluids is considered as an effective method of exposure surveillance. The aim of this study is to investigate the internal exposure of workers processing e-waste using a human biomonitoring approach, which will stimulate improved work practices and contribute to raising awareness of potential hazards. This exploratory study in occupational exposures in e-waste processing is part of the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU). Here we present a study protocol using a cross sectional survey design to study worker's exposures and compare these to the exposure of subjects preferably employed in the same company but with no known exposure to industrial recycling of e-waste. The present study protocol will be applied in six to eight European countries to ensure standardised data collection. The target population size is 300 exposed and 150 controls. Biomarkers of exposure for the following chemicals will be used: chromium, cadmium and lead in blood and urine; brominated flame retardants and polychlorobiphenyls in blood; mercury, organophosphate flame retardants and phthalates in urine, and chromium, cadmium, lead and mercury in hair. In addition, the following effect biomarkers will be studied: micronuclei, epigenetic, oxidative stress, inflammatory markers and telomere length in blood and metabolomics in urine. Occupational hygiene sampling methods (airborne and settled dust, silicon wristbands and handwipes) and contextual information will be collected to facilitate the interpretation of the biomarker results and discuss exposure mitigating interventions to further reduce exposures if needed. This study protocol can be adapted to future European-wide occupational studies.

Transcriptomic Impact of IMA-08401, a Novel AHR Agonist Resembling Laquinimod, on Rat Liver.

IMA-08401 (C2) is a novel aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) agonist and selective AHR modulator (SAHRM) that is structurally similar to laquinimod (LAQ). Both compounds are converted to the AHR-active metabolite DELAQ (IMA-06201) in vivo. SAHRMs have been proposed as therapeutic options for various autoimmune disorders. Clinical trials on LAQ have not reported any significant toxic outcomes and C2 has shown low toxicity in rats; however, their functional resemblance to the highly toxic AHR agonist 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) raises questions. Here, we characterize the hepatic transcriptomic changes induced by acute (single-dose) and subacute exposure (repeated dosing for 5 days followed by a 5-day recovery period) to C2 in Sprague-Dawley rats. Exposure to C2 leads to activation of the AHR, as shown by altered transcription of Cyp1a1. We identify a heightened response early after exposure that drops off by day 10. Acute exposure to C2 leads to changes to transcription of genes involved in antiviral and antibacterial responses, which highlights the immunomodulator effects of this AHR agonist. Subacute exposure causes an oxidative stress response in the liver, the consequences of which require further study on target tissues such as the CNS and immune system, both of which may be compromised in this patient population.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor is indispensable for ß-naphthoflavone-induced novel food avoidance and may be involved in LiCl-triggered conditioned taste aversion in rats.

Previous studies have shown that several aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) agonists, including ß-naphthoflavone (BNF), elicit avoidance of novel food items in rodents, with this behavioral response displaying a similar dose-response to hepatic induction of CYP1A1. The avoidance has been found to bear substantial similarity to conditioned taste avoidance/aversion (CTA). The present study set out to confirm the indispensability of AHR in the avoidance response, to verify whether vagal afferent fibers are involved in it, and to see if AHR signaling might interfere with the effect of the classic trigger of CTA, LiCl. To this end, globally AHR deficient (AHRKO) or vagotomized wildtype rats were treated by gavage with 60 mg/kg BNF or ip with 0.15 M LiCl (4 ml/kg), and presented with chocolate which was either novel or familiar to them. Both the avoidance response and Cyp1a1 induction were missing in AHRKO rats. In contrast, Ahr+/- rats exhibited them in full, save for a single outlier. Total subdiaphragmatic vagotomy failed to interfere with the avoidance of novel or familiar chocolate or induction of Cyp1a1. After LiCl administration, male AHRKO rats showed a significantly mitigated suppression of chocolate consumption compared with wildtype animals (~60% vs. ~10% of control chocolate intake, respectively). A similar tendency was seen in females, but they were less responsive to LiCl. These findings corroborate AHR as a prerequisite of the BNF-induced novel food avoidance, prove vagal afferents unlikely mediators of this response, and imply an unforeseen involvement of AHR signaling in the thoroughly-characterized CTA instigated by LiCl.

In vitro toxicity and in silico docking analysis of two novel selective AH-receptor modulators.

The mediator of dioxin toxicity, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), has also important physiological functions. Selective AHR modulators (SAHRMs) share some effects of dioxins, except for their marked toxicity. We recently characterised toxicologically two novel SAHRMs, prodrugs IMA-08401 and IMA-07101 in rats, demonstrating that they are far less deleterious than the most toxic AHR-agonist, TCDD. Here, we analysed the in vitro toxicity and in silico AHR binding of the respective active, deacetylated metabolites, IMA-06201 (N-ethyl-N-phenyl-5-chloro-1,2-dihydro-4-hydroxy-1-methyl-2-oxo-quinoline-3-carboxamide) and IMA-06504 (N-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-1,2-dihydro-4-hydroxy-5-methoxy-1-methyl-2-oxo-quinoline-3-carboxamide). In H4IIE rat hepatoma cells, IMA-06201 and IMA-06504 induced CYP1A1 with comparable potencies and efficacies to those of TCDD. They had little effect on cell viability as assessed by LDH leakage and MTT reduction assays, and were not mutagenic in the Ames test, but IMA-06504 elicited a maximally 2.7-fold increase in micronuclei. Molecular docking simulations showed that similar to TCDD, they occupy the central region of AHR ligand binding cavity. Hence, while showing low to negligible in vitro toxicity, these novel SAHRMs bind to the AHR qualitatively in a similar fashion to TCDD, and appear comparably powerful AHR agonists. Combined with our earlier results demonstrating that they seem considerably less toxic in vivo than TCDD, these compounds are thus highly interesting new SAHRMs.

Toxicological characterisation of two novel selective aryl hydrocarbon receptor modulators in Sprague-Dawley rats.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) mediates the toxicity of dioxins, but also plays important physiological roles. Selective AHR modulators, which elicit some effects imparted by this receptor without causing the marked toxicity of dioxins, are presently under intense scrutiny. Two novel such compounds are IMA-08401 (N-acetyl-N-phenyl-4-acetoxy-5-chloro-1,2-dihydro-1-methyl-2-oxo-quinoline-3-carboxamide) and IMA-07101 (N-acetyl-N-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4-acetoxy-1,2-dihydro-5-methoxy-1-methyl-2-oxo-quinoline-3-carboxamide). They represent, as diacetyl prodrugs, AHR-active metabolites of the drug compounds laquinimod and tasquinimod, respectively, which are intended for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and cancer. Here, we toxicologically assessed the novel compounds in Sprague-Dawley rats, after a single dose (8.75-92.5mg/kg) and 5-day repeated dosing at the highest doses achievable (IMA-08401: 100mg/kg/day; and IMA-07101: 75mg/kg/day). There were no overt clinical signs of toxicity, but body weight gain was marginally retarded, and the treatments induced minimal hepatic extramedullary haematopoiesis. Further, both the absolute and relative weights of the thymus were significantly decreased. Cyp1a1 gene expression was substantially increased in all tissues examined. The hepatic induction profile of other AHR battery genes was distinct from that caused by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). The only marked alterations in serum clinical chemistry variables were a reduction in triglycerides and an increase in 3-hydroxybutyrate. Liver and kidney retinol and retinyl palmitate concentrations were affected largely in the same manner as reported for TCDD. In vitro, the novel compounds activated CYP1A1 effectively in H4IIE cells. Altogether, these novel compounds appear to act as potent activators of the AHR, but lack some major characteristic toxicities of dioxins. They therefore represent promising new selective AHR modulators.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonists trigger avoidance of novel food in rats.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that mediates the toxicity of dioxins, but also plays important physiological roles, which are only beginning to unfold. Previous studies have surprisingly unveiled that low doses of the potent AHR agonist TCDD induce a strong and persistent avoidance of novel food items in rats. Here, we further examined the involvement of the AHR in the avoidance response in Sprague-Dawley rats with three established AHR agonists: 6-formylindolo(3,2-b)carbazole (FICZ), ß-naphthoflavone (BNF) and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP); with a novel selective AHR modulator (C2); and with an activator of another nuclear receptor, CAR: 2,4,6-tryphenyldioxane-1,3 (TPD). As sensitive indices of AHR or CAR activity, we used Cyp1a1 and Cyp2b1 gene expression, as they are, respectively, the drug-metabolizing enzymes specifically regulated by them. We further attempted to address the roles played by enhanced neophobia and conditioned taste aversion (CTA) in the avoidance behaviour. All AHR agonists triggered practically total avoidance of novel chocolate, but the durations varied. Likewise, acutely subtoxic doses of C2, differing by 25-fold, all elicited a similar outcome. In contrast, TPD did not influence chocolate consumption at all. If rats were initially accustomed to chocolate for 6h after single FICZ or BNF exposure, avoidance was still clearly present two weeks later when chocolate was offered again. Hence, the avoidance response appears to specifically involve the AHR instead of being triggered by induction of intestinal or hepatic nuclear receptor signalling in general. It is also shared by both endogenous and exogenous AHR activators. Moreover, this behavioural change in rats seems to contain elements of both CTA and enhanced neophobia, but further clarification of this is still required.