Broadly neutralizing antibodies for HIV prevention: a comprehensive review and future perspectives.

SUMMARYThe human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic remains a formidable global health concern, with 39 million people living with the virus and 1.3 million new infections reported in 2022. Despite anti-retroviral therapy's effectiveness in pre-exposure prophylaxis, its global adoption is limited. Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) offer an alternative strategy for HIV prevention through passive immunization. Historically, passive immunization has been efficacious in the treatment of various diseases ranging from oncology to infectious diseases. Early clinical trials suggest bNAbs are safe, tolerable, and capable of reducing HIV RNA levels. Although challenges such as bNAb resistance have been noted in phase I trials, ongoing research aims to assess the additive or synergistic benefits of combining multiple bNAbs. Researchers are exploring bispecific and trispecific antibodies, and fragment crystallizable region modifications to augment antibody efficacy and half-life. Moreover, the potential of other antibody isotypes like IgG3 and IgA is under investigation. While promising, the application of bNAbs faces economic and logistical barriers. High manufacturing costs, particularly in resource-limited settings, and logistical challenges like cold-chain requirements pose obstacles. Preliminary studies suggest cost-effectiveness, although this is contingent on various factors like efficacy and distribution. Technological advancements and strategic partnerships may mitigate some challenges, but issues like molecular aggregation remain. The World Health Organization has provided preferred product characteristics for bNAbs, focusing on optimizing their efficacy, safety, and accessibility. The integration of bNAbs in HIV prophylaxis necessitates a multi-faceted approach, considering economic, logistical, and scientific variables. This review comprehensively covers the historical context, current advancements, and future avenues of bNAbs in HIV prevention.

Extended safety and tolerability of subcutaneous CAP256V2LS and VRC07-523LS in HIV-negative women: study protocol for the randomised, placebo-controlled double-blinded, phase 2 CAPRISA 012C trial.

INTRODUCTION: Women-controlled HIV prevention technologies that overcome adherence challenges of available daily oral pre-exposure prophylaxis and give women a choice of options are urgently needed. Broadly neutralising monoclonal antibodies (bnAbs) administered passively may offer a valuable non-antiretroviral biological intervention for HIV prevention. Animal and human studies have demonstrated that bnAbs which neutralise HIV can prevent infection. The optimal plasma antibody concentrations to confer protection against HIV infection in humans is under intense study. The Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA) 012C trial will evaluate extended safety and pharmacokinetics of CAP256V2LS and VRC07-523LS among young HIV-negative South African and Zambian women. The study design also allows for an evaluation of a signal of HIV prevention efficacy. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: CAPRISA 012 is a series of trials with three distinct protocols. The completed CAPRISA 012A and 012B phase 1 trials provided critical data for the CAPRISA 012C trial, which is divided into parts A and B. In part A, 90 participants were randomised to receive both CAP256V2LS and VRC07-523LS at 20 mg/kg or placebo, subcutaneously every 16 or 24 weeks. Part B will enrol 900 participants in South Africa and Zambia who will be randomised in a 1:1 ratio and receive an initial loading dose of 1.2 g of CAP256V2LS and VRC07-523LS or placebo followed by 600 mg of CAP256V2LS and 1.2 g of VRC07-523LS or placebo subcutaneously every 6 months. Safety will be assessed by frequency and severity of reactogenicity and other related adverse events. Pharmacokinetics of both antibodies will be measured in systemic and mucosal compartments over time, while participants will be monitored for breakthrough HIV infections. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION OF STUDY FINDINGS: The University of KwaZulu-Natal Biomedical Research Ethics Committee and South African Health Products Regulatory Authority have approved the trial (BREC/00002492/2021, SAHPRA20210317). Results will be disseminated through conference presentations, peer-reviewed publications and the clinical trial registry. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: PACTR202112683307570.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in ABC drug transporters alter expression and circulating tenofovir in healthy South African women exposed to pre-exposure prophylaxis.

Aim: We investigated if single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in ATP-binding cassette (ABC) drug transporters alter gene expression and tenofovir disposition in South African women taking Truvada® for HIV prevention. Materials & methods: In 393 women, real-time PCR was used to determine the associations between six SNPs in ABC transporter genes, mRNA expression and circulating-tenofovir. Results: Univariable and multivariable analyses showed that CT and TT relative to CC genotypes for the ABCC4(3463C/T) SNP had significantly higher tenofovir levels. In contrast, the AA genotype for the ABCC4(4976A/G) SNP showed significantly less tenofovir, while mRNA expression was increased. Conclusion: SNPs in the ABCC4 gene may differentially affect gene expression and circulating tenofovir. Their impact may inform on low pre-exposure prophylaxis efficacy and discern effective drugs in clinical trials of African women enriched for certain genotypes.

Safety and pharmacokinetics of escalating doses of neutralising monoclonal antibody CAP256V2LS administered with and without VRC07-523LS in HIV-negative women in South Africa (CAPRISA 012B): a phase 1, dose-escalation, randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Young women in sub-Saharan Africa continue to bear a high burden of HIV infection. Combination anti-HIV monoclonal antibodies are a potential HIV prevention technology that could overcome adherence challenges of daily oral pre-exposure prophylaxis. In this phase 1 clinical trial we aimed to determine the safety and pharmacokinetic profile of the broadly neutralising monoclonal antibody CAP256V2LS. METHODS: CAPRISA 012B, a first-in-human dose-escalation phase 1 trial evaluated the safety, pharmacokinetics, and neutralisation activity of CAP256V2LS alone and in combination with VRC07-523LS in young HIV-negative women in Durban, South Africa. Groups 1 and 2 were open label with CAP256V2LS administered at 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg intravenously and 5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, and 20 mg/kg subcutaneously. In group 3, participants were randomly allocated to receive a combination of CAP256V2LS and VRC07-523LS at 10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg subcutaneously comixed with ENHANZE, a recombinant human hyaluronidase. Once safety was established in the first three participants, dose escalation took place sequentially following review of safety data. Primary endpoints were the proportion of participants with mild, moderate, and severe reactogenicity or adverse events, graded as per the Division of AIDS toxicity grading. The trial is registered on the Pan African Clinical Trial Registry, PACTR202003767867253, and is recruiting. FINDINGS: From July 13, 2020, to Jan 13, 2021, 42 HIV-negative women, aged 18-45 years, were enrolled. All 42 participants, eight with intravenous and 34 with subcutaneous administration, completed the trial. There were no serious adverse events or dose-limiting toxicities. Most commonly reported symptoms following intravenous administration were headaches in seven (88%) and nausea in four (50%) participants. Commonly reported symptoms following subcutaneous administration were headache in 31 (91%), chills in 25 (74%), and malaise or fatigue in 19 (56%) participants. Adverse events included transient lymphocytopenia in eight (19%), proteinuria in nine (21%), elevated aspartate aminotransferase in ten (24%), and alanine aminotransferase in five (12%) participants. INTERPRETATION: CAP256V2LS administered alone and in combination with VRC07-523LS was safe with favourable pharmacokinetics and neutralisation activity, supporting further assessment in larger clinical studies. FUNDING: European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership, South African Medical Research Council, and South African Department of Science and Innovation.

Women for science and science for women: Gaps, challenges and opportunities towards optimizing pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV-1 prevention.

Preventing new HIV infections remains a global challenge. Young women continue to bear a disproportionate burden of infection. Oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), offers a novel women-initiated prevention technology and PrEP trials completed to date underscore the importance of their inclusion early in trials evaluating new HIV PrEP technologies. Data from completed topical and systemic PrEP trials highlight the role of gender specific physiological and social factors that impact PrEP uptake, adherence and efficacy. Here we review the past and current developments of HIV-1 prevention options for women with special focus on PrEP considering the diverse factors that can impact PrEP efficacy. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of inclusion of female scientists, clinicians, and community advocates in scientific efforts to further improve HIV prevention strategies.

Safety and Pharmacokinetics of Monoclonal Antibodies VRC07-523LS and PGT121 Administered Subcutaneously for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Prevention.

BACKGROUND: Effective, long-acting prevention approaches are needed to reduce human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) incidence. We evaluated the safety and pharmacokinetics of VRC07-523LS and PGT121 administered subcutaneously alone and in combination as passive immunization for young women in South Africa. METHODS: CAPRISA 012A was a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, dose-escalation phase 1 trial. We enrolled 45 HIV-negative women into 9 groups and assessed safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, neutralization activity, and antidrug antibody levels. Pharmacokinetic modeling was conducted to predict steady-state concentrations for 12- and 24-weekly dosing intervals. RESULTS: VRC07-523LS and PGT121, administered subcutaneously, were safe and well tolerated. Most common reactogenicity events were injection site tenderness and headaches. Nine product-related adverse events were mild and transient. Median VRC07-523LS concentrations after 20 mg/kg doses were 9.65 µg/mL and 3.86 µg/mL at 16 and 24 weeks. The median week 8 concentration after the 10 mg/kg PGT121 dose was 8.26 µg/mL. Modeling of PGT121 at 20 mg/kg showed median concentrations of 1.37 µg/mL and 0.22 µg/mL at 16 and 24 weeks. Half-lives of VRC07-523LS and PGT121 were 29 and 20 days. Both antibodies retained neutralizing activity postadministration and no antidrug antibodies were detected. CONCLUSIONS: Subcutaneous administration of VRC07-523LS in combination with optimized versions of PGT121 or other antibodies should be further assessed for HIV prevention.

Clinical Trials of Broadly Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Prevention: A Review.

Passive immunization with broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) is a promising approach to reduce the 1.7 million annual human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections globally. Early studies on bnAbs showed safety in humans, but short elimination half-lives and low potency and breadth. Since 2010, several new highly potent bnAbs have been assessed in clinical trials alone or in combination for HIV prevention. Published data indicate that these bnAbs are safe and have a half-life ranging from 15 to 71 days. Only intravenous VRC01 has advanced to an efficacy trial, with results expected in late 2020. If bnAbs are shown to be effective in preventing HIV infection, they could fast-track vaccine development as correlates of protection, and contribute as passive immunization to achieving the goal of epidemic control. The purpose of the current review is to describe the current status and provide a synopsis of the available data on bnAbs in clinical trials for HIV prevention.

Assessing the safety and pharmacokinetics of the anti-HIV monoclonal antibody CAP256V2LS alone and in combination with VRC07-523LS and PGT121 in South African women: study protocol for the first-in-human CAPRISA 012B phase I clinical trial.

INTRODUCTION: New HIV prevention strategies are urgently required. The discovery of broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) has provided the opportunity to evaluate passive immunisation as a potential prevention strategy and facilitate vaccine development. Since 2014, several bNAbs have been isolated from a clade C-infected South African donor, CAPRISA 256. One particular bNAb, CAP256-VRC26.25, was found to be extremely potent, with good coverage against clade C viruses, the dominant HIV clade in sub-Saharan Africa. Challenge studies in non-human primates demonstrated that this antibody was fully protective even at extremely low doses. This bNAb was subsequently structurally engineered and the clinical variant is now referred to as CAP256V2LS. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: CAPRISA 012B is the second of three trials in the CAPRISA 012 bNAb trial programme. It is a first-in-human, phase I study to assess the safety and pharmacokinetics of CAP256V2LS. The study is divided into four groups. Group 1 is a dose escalation of CAP256V2LS administered intravenously to HIV-negative and HIV-positive women. Group 2 is a dose escalation of CAP256V2LS administered subcutaneously (SC), with and without the dispersing agent recombinant human hyaluronidase (rHuPH20) as single or repeat doses in HIV-negative women. Groups 3 and 4 are randomised placebo controlled to assess two (CAP256V2LS+VRC07-523LS; CAP256V2LS+PGT121) and three (CAP256V2LS+VRC07-523LS+PGT121) bNAb combinations administered SC to HIV-negative women. Safety will be assessed by the frequency of reactogenicity and adverse events related to the study product. Pharmacokinetic disposition of CAP256V2LS alone and in combination with VRC07-523LS and PGT121 will be assessed via dose subgroups and route of administration. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The University of KwaZulu-Natal Biomedical Research Ethics Committee (BREC) and the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority (SAHPRA) have granted regulatory approval (trial reference numbers: BREC00000857/2019 and SAHPRA 20200123). Trial results will be disseminated through conference presentations, peer-reviewed publications and the clinical trial registry. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: PACTR202003767867253; Pre-results.

Discordant line probe genotypic testing vs culture-based drug susceptibility phenotypic testing in TB endemic KwaZulu-Natal: Impact on bedside clinical decision making.

The recommendations for Mycobacterium tuberculosis drug susceptibility testing include both phenotypic and genotypic methods. This concurrent use of differing testing platforms has created an emerging challenge of discordant results, creating a diagnostic dilemma for the laboratorians as well as attending clinicians. We undertook a retrospective study to determine the prevalence of discordant results between the MTBDRplus line probe assay and solid culture-based drug susceptibility testing for rifampicin and isoniazid. The analysis was conducted for the period January 2013 and December 2015 at the Inkosi Albert Luthuli Central Hospital. Rifampicin and isoniazid resistance testing data were "paired" on 8273 isolates for culture-based drug susceptibility testing and line probe assay. The latter method showed high sensitivity and specificity of 93% and 95% respectively for isoniazid testing. For rifampicin testing, sensitivity and specificity were 95% and 75%. Overall, discordance was 14.6% for rifampicin and 7.2% for isoniazid. This report is not intended to determine superiority of one method over another. It is merely to show that discordance does exist between different methods of testing. Given the burden of HIV and Tuberculosis in Sub-Saharan Africa, these findings have clinical significance and huge public health implications. Clinicians should understand the limitations of phenotypic testing methods.

Assessing the safety and pharmacokinetics of the monoclonal antibodies, VRC07-523LS and PGT121 in HIV negative women in South Africa: study protocol for the CAPRISA 012A randomised controlled phase I trial.

INTRODUCTION: Despite extensive prevention campaigns and scale-up of antiretroviral therapy, HIV incidence among young women in southern Africa remains high. While the development of an efficacious vaccine remains a challenge, the discovery of broadly neutralising monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) has created the opportunity to explore passive immunisation as a long-acting injectable HIV prevention strategy. The purpose of this trial is to provide safety, pharmacokinetic (PK) and functional activity data of VRC07-523LS and PGT121 when administered subcutaneously (SC) to young South African women. Going forward, the aim is to select the ideal dose and/or monoclonal antibody for co-formulation and testing with CAP256-VRC26.25LS, a potent monoclonal antibody against subtype C virus, in an efficacy trial. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: CAPRISA 012A is a randomised, double blinded, placebo-controlled phase I trial to assess the safety and PK profile of two mAbs, VRC07-523LS and PGT121 administered SC to 35 young HIV negative women at low risk for HIV infection. Women will be randomised into seven groups of five participants each. In each group, women will be randomised (4:1) to the active intervention, VRC07-523LS and/or PGT121, or placebo. Participants will be followed up for 24 weeks after the administration of the last dose of study product with a total study duration of 72 weeks. Safety in the study will be assessed by the number and percentage of reactogenicity and adverse events experienced by participants and the relatedness to study product. The PK study design was based on preliminary PK data for VRC07-523LS and PGT121. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval has been granted by the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority and by the University of KwaZulu-Natal Biomedical Research Ethics Committee. Results will be presented at international conferences and published in academic peer-reviewed journals. Trial results will be uploaded on the clinical trial registry. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: PACTR201808919297244; Pre-results.

Precision medicine in resistant Tuberculosis: Treat the correct patient, at the correct time, with the correct drug.

Human genomic mapping has advanced molecular medicine health care and created a transformative paradigm shift towards Precision Medicine. In 2015, President Obama launched the PM initiative, encapsulated as "unique individualized data-driven treatments". Since then, this field is rapidly advancing both curative treatment and disease prevention by accounting for both individual and environmental variability. While a substantial evidence for accelerating adoption of Precision Medicine in other spheres of medicine exists, application of Precision Medicine in infectious diseases is far more complex. One of the most warranted applications of precision healthcare is in the management and treatment of Drug-resistant Tuberculosis. Application of Precision Medicine to Drug-resistant Tuberculosis could potentially change the landscape of treatment and prevention of a disease affecting vulnerable patients in impoverished communities. Poorly diagnosed and treated Drug-resistant Tuberculosis not only leads to increased mortality and morbidity but also increased transmission of DR-TB strains, fuelling ongoing high incidence rates and further infection. A Precision medicine model using individual clinical case histories used in conjunction with Mycobacterium Tuberculosis infection genomic data will better guide health care practitioners in more appropriate drug selection, and an individualized management approach. This viewpoint deliberates the intricacies of adopting a PM approach in the management of DR-TB. If applied correctly, we postulate that the research, application, and deployment of PM in DR-TB management may address the fundamental rule of PM in infectious disease: to treat the correct patient, at the correct time, with the correct drug.

Evolution of drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a review on the molecular determinants of resistance and implications for personalized care.

Drug-resistant TB (DR-TB) remains a significant challenge in TB treatment and control programmes worldwide. Advances in sequencing technology have significantly increased our understanding of the mechanisms of resistance to anti-TB drugs. This review provides an update on advances in our understanding of drug resistance mechanisms to new, existing drugs and repurposed agents. Recent advances in WGS technology hold promise as a tool for rapid diagnosis and clinical management of TB. Although the standard approach to WGS of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is slow due to the requirement for organism culture, recent attempts to sequence directly from clinical specimens have improved the potential to diagnose and detect resistance within days. The introduction of new databases may be helpful, such as the Relational Sequencing TB Data Platform, which contains a collection of whole-genome sequences highlighting key drug resistance mutations and clinical outcomes. Taken together, these advances will help devise better molecular diagnostics for more effective DR-TB management enabling personalized treatment, and will facilitate the development of new drugs aimed at improving outcomes of patients with this disease.

Whole genome sequencing for the management of drug-resistant TB in low income high TB burden settings: Challenges and implications.

Drug-resistant tuberculosis is emerging as a major global health challenge, fuelled by a limited formulary and reduced ability to timeously diagnose resistance. Furthermore, poorly managed drug-resistant tuberculosis is complicated by poor treatment outcomes and high rates of morbidity and mortality. A rapid diagnosis together with individualized management are essential in order to limit disease and curtail transmission. Recently, the feasibility of Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) technology for the routine diagnosis and drug susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis in a high income, low tuberculosis burden setting, was demonstrated. However, the use of WGS in low income settings, with the highest burden of disease, has not been evaluated. This viewpoint highlights the challenges and implications associated with the use of Whole Genome Sequencing for the diagnosis and management of drug-resistant tuberculosis in such settings.

Failure of BACTEC™ MGIT 960™ to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex within a 42-day incubation period.

For the optimal recovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the BACTEC™ Mycobacterium Growth Indicator Tube 960™ system, an incubation period of 42-56 days is recommended by the manufacturer. Due to logistical reasons, it is common practice to follow an incubation period of 42 days. We undertook a retrospective study to document positive Mycobacterium Growth Indicator Tube cultures beyond the 42-day incubation period. In total, 98/110 (89%) were positive for M. tuberculosis complex. This alerted us to M. tuberculosis growth detection failure at 42 days.

The successful use of amphotericin B followed by oral posaconazole in a rare case of invasive fungal sinusitis caused by co-infection with mucormycosis and aspergillus.

We report on an unusual case of oro-rhinocerebral disease caused by mucormycosis and aspergillus co-infection in a 54-year-old insulin dependent diabetic patient. Although she was successfully treated with parenteral amphotericin B followed by oral posaconazole, she was left with irreversible blindness of the right eye and multiple cranial nerve palsies.

Rifampicin mono-resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a significant phenomenon in a high prevalence TB-HIV region.

SETTING: The dual epidemics of HIV-TB including MDR-TB are major contributors to high morbidity and mortality rates in South Africa. Rifampicin (RIF) resistance is regarded as a proxy for MDR-TB. Currently available molecular assays have the advantage of rapidly detecting resistant strains of MTB, but the GeneXpert does not detect isoniazid (INH) resistance and the GenoTypeMTBDRplus(LPA) assay may underestimate resistance to INH. Increasing proportions of rifampicin mono-resistance resistance (RMR) have recently been reported from South Africa and other countries. OBJECTIVE: This laboratory based study was conducted at NHLS TB Laboratory, Durban, which is the reference laboratory for culture and susceptibility testing in KwaZulu-Natal. We retrospectively determined, for the period 2007 to 2009, the proportion of RMR amongst Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) isolates, that were tested for both RIF and INH, using the gold standard of culture based phenotypic drug susceptibility testing (DST). Gender and age were also analysed to identify possible risk factors for RMR. DESIGN: MTB culture positive sputum samples from 16,748 patients were analysed for susceptibility to RIF and INH during the period 2007 to 2009. RMR was defined as MTB resistant to RIF and susceptible to INH. For the purposes of this study, only the first specimen from each patient was included in the analysis. RESULTS: RMR was observed throughout the study period. The proportion of RMR varied from a low of 7.3% to a high of 10.0% [overall 8.8%]. Overall, males had a 42% increased odds of being RMR as compared to females. In comparison to the 50 plus age group, RMR was 37% more likely to occur in the 25-29 year age category. CONCLUSION: We report higher proportions of RMR ranging from 7.3% to 10% [overall 8.8%] than previously reported in the literature. To avoid misclassification of RMR, detected by the GeneXpert, as MDR-TB, culture based phenotypic DST must be performed on a second specimen, as recommended by the SA NDOH TB guidelines as well as WHO. We suggest that two sputum samples should be obtained at the first visit. The second sputum sample should be stored at 4°C. The latter sample is then readily available for performing additional DST (phenotypic or genotypic) for 2nd lines drugs, resulting in a decreased waiting period for DST results to become available.