Association between SARS-CoV-2 gene specific Ct values and COVID-19 associated in-hospital mortality.

Background: Since there are currently no specific SARS-CoV-2 prognostic viral biomarkers for predicting disease severity, there has been interest in using SARS-CoV-2 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cycle-threshold (Ct) values to predict disease progression. Objective: This study assessed the association between in-hospital mortality of hospitalized COVID-19 cases and Ct-values of gene targets specific to SARS-CoV-2. Methods: Clinical data of hospitalized COVID-19 cases from Gauteng Province from April 2020-July 2022 were obtained from a national surveillance system and linked to laboratory data. The study period was divided into pandemic waves: Asp614Gly/wave1 (7 June-22 Aug 2020); beta/wave2 (15 Nov 2020-6 Feb 2021); delta/wave3 (9 May-18 Sept 2021) and omicron/wave4 (21 Nov 2021-22 Jan 2022). Ct-value data of genes specific to SARS-CoV-2 according to testing platforms (Roche-ORF gene; GeneXpert-N2 gene; Abbott-RdRp gene) were categorized as low (Ct < 20), mid (Ct20-30) or high (Ct > 30). Results: There were 1205 recorded cases: 836(69.4%; wave1), 122(10.1%;wave2) 21(1.7%; wave3) and 11(0.9%;in wave4). The cases' mean age(±SD) was 49 years(±18), and 662(54.9%) were female. There were 296(24.6%) deaths recorded: 241(81.4%;wave1), 27 (9.1%;wave2), 6 (2%;wave3), and 2 (0.7%;wave4) (p < 0.001). Sample distribution by testing platforms was: Roche 1,033 (85.7%), GeneXpert 169 (14%) and Abbott 3 (0.3%). The median (IQR) Ct-values according to testing platform were: Roche 26 (22-30), GeneXpert 38 (36-40) and Abbott 21 (16-24). After adjusting for sex, age and presence of a comorbidity, the odds of COVID-19 associated death were high amongst patients with Ct values 20-30[adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) 2.25; 95% CI: 1.60-3.18] and highest amongst cases with Ct-values <20 (aOR 3.18; 95% CI: 1.92-5.27), compared to cases with Ct-values >30. Conclusion: Although odds of COVID19-related death were high amongst cases with Ct-values <30, Ct values were not comparable across different testing platforms, thus precluding the comparison of SARS-CoV-2 Ct-value results.

HIV self-testing: a cross-sectional survey conducted among students at a tertiary institution in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2020.

Background: Despite the growing evidence for reasonable acceptance and the willingness to use HIV self-testing (HIVST), South Africa has not yet fully explored HIVST. Objective: This study's objective was to determine knowledge, attitudes, and practices for HIVST among students aged 18 to 29 years from the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Methods: An online cross-sectional self-administered survey was used to collect data from 01 January 2020 to 31 June 2020. Chi-squared test was used to determine the contribution between categorical variables and HIVST outcomes at a P-value of ≤0.05. Logistic regression was performed to analyze the association between categorical variables with HIVST at a 95% confidence interval. Results: A total of 227 students were included and more than half were females and 68% were between 20 and 24 years of age. Only 15% reported prior access to HIVST. Almost all students (99%) indicated that they would confirm self-test results if positive. Age group 25-29 (aOR 3.43; 95% CI 1.7-77) was associated with HIVST access compared to ≤19 and 24-29 age groups. Conclusions: HIVST awareness was generally high among this study population. Of concern is the extremely low number of students who had previously used HIVST, as well as those who were unaware of HIVST's existence. Our findings highlight a necessity for HIVST advocacy in South Africa that provides information on where and how HIVST kits can be accessed to potentially upscale HIV testing - essential for achieving UNAIDS targets towards the elimination of HIV/AIDS epidemic as a public health threat.

Clinical severity of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.4 and BA.5 lineages compared to BA.1 and Delta in South Africa.

Omicron lineages BA.4 and BA.5 drove a fifth wave of COVID-19 cases in South Africa. Here, we use the presence/absence of the S-gene target as a proxy for SARS-CoV-2 variant/lineage for infections diagnosed using the TaqPath PCR assay between 1 October 2021 and 26 April 2022. We link national COVID-19 individual-level data including case, laboratory test and hospitalisation data. We assess severity using multivariable logistic regression comparing the risk of hospitalisation and risk of severe disease, once hospitalised, for Delta, BA.1, BA.2 and BA.4/BA.5 infections. After controlling for factors associated with hospitalisation and severe outcome respectively, BA.4/BA.5-infected individuals had a similar odds of hospitalisation (aOR 1.24, 95% CI 0.98-1.55) and severe outcome (aOR 0.72, 95% CI 0.41-1.26) compared to BA.1-infected individuals. Newly emerged Omicron lineages BA.4/BA.5 showed similar severity to the BA.1 lineage and continued to show reduced clinical severity compared to the Delta variant.

Characteristics of hospitalised COVID-19 patients during the first two pandemic waves, Gauteng.

Background: Gauteng province (GP) was one of the most affected provinces in the country during the first two pandemic waves in South Africa. We aimed to describe the characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients admitted in one of the largest quaternary hospitals in GP during the first two waves. Objectives: Study objectives were to determine factors associated with hospital admission during the second wave and to describe factors associated with in-hospital COVID-19 mortality. Method: Data from a national hospital-based surveillance system of COVID-19 hospitalisations were used. Multivariable logistic regression models were conducted to compare patients hospitalised during wave 1 and wave 2, and to determine factors associated with in-hospital mortality. Results: The case fatality ratio was the highest (39.95%) during wave 2. Factors associated with hospitalisation included age groups 40-59 years (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 2.14, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.08-4.27), 60-79 years (aOR: 2.49, 95% CI: 1.23-5.02) and ≥ 80 years (aOR: 3.39, 95% CI: 1.35-8.49). Factors associated with in-hospital mortality included age groups 60-79 years (aOR: 2.55, 95% CI: 1.11-5.84) and ≥ 80 years (aOR: 5.66, 95% CI: 2.12-15.08); male sex (aOR: 1.56, 95% CI: 1.22-1.99); presence of an underlying comorbidity (aOR: 1.76, 95% CI: 1.37-2.26), as well as being admitted during post-wave 2 (aOR: 2.42, 95% CI: 1.33-4.42). Conclusion: Compared to the recent omicron-driven pandemic waves characterised by lower admission rates and less disease severity among younger patients, COVID-19 in-hospital mortality during the earlier waves was associated with older age, being male and having an underlying comorbidity. Contribution: This study showed how an active surveillance system can contribute towards identifying changes in disease trends.

Evaluation of a commercial SARS-CoV-2 multiplex PCR genotyping assay for variant identification in resource-scarce settings.

The rapid emergence and spread of numerous severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants across the globe underscores the crucial need for continuous SARS-CoV-2 surveillance to ensure that potentially more pathogenic variants are detected early and contained. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) is currently the gold standard for COVID-19 surveillance; however, it remains cost-prohibitive and requires specialized technical skills. To increase surveillance capacity, especially in resource-scarce settings, supplementary methods that are cost- and time-effective are needed. Real-time multiplex PCR genotyping assays offer an economical and fast solution for screening circulating and emerging variants while simultaneously complementing existing WGS approaches. In this study we evaluated the AllplexTM SARS-CoV-2 Variants II multiplex real-time PCR genotyping assay, Seegene (South Korea), and implemented it in retrospectively characterizing circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants in a rural South African setting between April and October 2021, prior to the emergence of the Omicron variant in South Africa. The AllplexTM SARS-CoV-2 Variants II real-time PCR assay demonstrated perfect concordance with whole-genome sequencing in detecting Beta and Delta variants and exhibited high specificity, sensitivity and reproducibility. Implementation of the assay in characterization of SARS-CoV-2 variants between April and October 2021 in a rural South African setting revealed a rapid shift from the Beta to the Delta variant between April and June. All specimens successfully genotyped in April were Beta variants and the Delta variant was not detected until May. By June, 78% of samples genotyped were Delta variants and in July >95% of all genotyped samples were Delta variants. The Delta variant continued to predominate through to the end of our analysis in October 2021. Taken together, a commercial SARS-CoV-2 variant genotyping assay detected the rapid rate at which the Delta variant displaced the Beta variant in Limpopo, an under-monitored province in South Africa. Such assays provide a quick and cost-effective method of monitoring circulating variants and should be used to complement genomic sequencing for COVID-19 surveillance especially in resource-scarce settings.

Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron lineages BA.4 and BA.5 in South Africa.

Three lineages (BA.1, BA.2 and BA.3) of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Omicron variant of concern predominantly drove South Africa's fourth Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) wave. We have now identified two new lineages, BA.4 and BA.5, responsible for a fifth wave of infections. The spike proteins of BA.4 and BA.5 are identical, and similar to BA.2 except for the addition of 69-70 deletion (present in the Alpha variant and the BA.1 lineage), L452R (present in the Delta variant), F486V and the wild-type amino acid at Q493. The two lineages differ only outside of the spike region. The 69-70 deletion in spike allows these lineages to be identified by the proxy marker of S-gene target failure, on the background of variants not possessing this feature. BA.4 and BA.5 have rapidly replaced BA.2, reaching more than 50% of sequenced cases in South Africa by the first week of April 2022. Using a multinomial logistic regression model, we estimated growth advantages for BA.4 and BA.5 of 0.08 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.08-0.09) and 0.10 (95% CI: 0.09-0.11) per day, respectively, over BA.2 in South Africa. The continued discovery of genetically diverse Omicron lineages points to the hypothesis that a discrete reservoir, such as human chronic infections and/or animal hosts, is potentially contributing to further evolution and dispersal of the virus.

Identification of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant using spike gene target failure and genotyping assays, Gauteng, South Africa, 2021.

The circulation of Omicron BA.1 led to the rapid increase in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) cases in South Africa in November 2021, which warranted the use of more rapid detection methods. We, therefore, assessed the ability to detect Omicron BA.1 using genotyping assays to identify specific mutations in SARS-CoV-2 positive samples, Gauteng province, South Africa. The TaqPath™ COVID-19 real-time polymerase chain reaction assay was performed on all samples selected to identify spike gene target failure (SGTF). SARS-CoV-2 genotyping assays were used for the detection of del69/70 and K417N mutation. Whole-genome sequencing was performed on a subset of genotyped samples to confirm these findings. Of the positive samples received, 11.0% (175/1589) were randomly selected to assess if SGTF and genotyping assays, that detect del69/70 and K417N mutations, could identify Omicron BA.1. We identified SGTF in 98.9% (173/175) of samples, of which 88.0% (154/175) had both the del69/70 and K417N mutation. The genotyped samples (45.7%; 80/175) that were sequenced confirmed Omicron BA.1 (97.5%; 78/80). Our data show that genotyping for the detection of the del69/70 and K417N coupled with SGTF is efficient to exclude Alpha and Beta variants and rapidly detect Omicron BA.1. However, we still require assays for the detection of unique mutations that will allow for the differentiation between other Omicron sublineages. Therefore, the use of genotyping assays to detect new dominant or emerging lineages of SARS-CoV-2 will be beneficial in limited-resource settings.

Emergence and phenotypic characterization of the global SARS-CoV-2 C.1.2 lineage.

Global genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 has identified variants associated with increased transmissibility, neutralization resistance and disease severity. Here we report the emergence of the PANGO lineage C.1.2, detected at low prevalence in South Africa and eleven other countries. The initial C.1.2 detection is associated with a high substitution rate, and includes changes within the spike protein that have been associated with increased transmissibility or reduced neutralization sensitivity in SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern or variants of interest. Like Beta and Delta, C.1.2 shows significantly reduced neutralization sensitivity to plasma from vaccinees and individuals infected with the ancestral D614G virus. In contrast, convalescent donors infected with either Beta or Delta show high plasma neutralization against C.1.2. These functional data suggest that vaccine efficacy against C.1.2 will be equivalent to Beta and Delta, and that prior infection with either Beta or Delta will likely offer protection against C.1.2.

Factors influencing the high rejection rates of HIV 1/2 serology samples at Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital and the cost implications.

BACKGROUND: HIV enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is one of the most requested test sets within Virology and forms an essential part of patient management. Assessment of the rejection criteria is a key quality indicator, crucial for improving laboratory services and efficiency to ensure accurate and reliable results. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to identify the factors that influence the HIV 1/2 serology rejection rates (RR) at Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital and to evaluate the associated costs. METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted (June to December 2019) to identify the RR and rejection criteria of HIV serology samples throughout the total testing process. Descriptive analysis using percentages and frequencies was used to analyse the RR by phase, health establishment, ward and healthcare professional. A cost analysis incorporating minor and major costs was modelled in each phase of testing, and the total cost of rejections was calculated. RESULTS: A total of 6678 tests were received, and 738 were rejected (RR = 11.1%). The pre-analytical phase contributed significantly to the overall RR, with the requirement of a separate sample (57.44%) the most common reason for rejection. The total cost per rejected test was $2.47, which amounted to a total rejection cost of $197.55, of which $158.18 was caused by the pre-analytical rejection criteria. CONCLUSION: High RR of HIV tests were noted, resulting in significant cost wastage. Identification and analysis of rejections must be implemented across all laboratories to improve the efficiency of testing, provide a cost-saving benefit and maintain high laboratory standards.

Rapid epidemic expansion of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant in southern Africa.

The SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in southern Africa has been characterized by three distinct waves. The first was associated with a mix of SARS-CoV-2 lineages, while the second and third waves were driven by the Beta (B.1.351) and Delta (B.1.617.2) variants, respectively1-3. In November 2021, genomic surveillance teams in South Africa and Botswana detected a new SARS-CoV-2 variant associated with a rapid resurgence of infections in Gauteng province, South Africa. Within three days of the first genome being uploaded, it was designated a variant of concern (Omicron, B.1.1.529) by the World Health Organization and, within three weeks, had been identified in 87 countries. The Omicron variant is exceptional for carrying over 30 mutations in the spike glycoprotein, which are predicted to influence antibody neutralization and spike function4. Here we describe the genomic profile and early transmission dynamics of Omicron, highlighting the rapid spread in regions with high levels of population immunity.

Early assessment of the clinical severity of the SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant in South Africa: a data linkage study.

BACKGROUND: The SARS-CoV-2 omicron variant of concern was identified in South Africa in November, 2021, and was associated with an increase in COVID-19 cases. We aimed to assess the clinical severity of infections with the omicron variant using S gene target failure (SGTF) on the Thermo Fisher Scientific TaqPath COVID-19 PCR test as a proxy. METHODS: We did data linkages for national, South African COVID-19 case data, SARS-CoV-2 laboratory test data, SARS-CoV-2 genome data, and COVID-19 hospital admissions data. For individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 via TaqPath PCR tests, infections were designated as either SGTF or non-SGTF. The delta variant was identified by genome sequencing. Using multivariable logistic regression models, we assessed disease severity and hospitalisations by comparing individuals with SGTF versus non-SGTF infections diagnosed between Oct 1 and Nov 30, 2021, and we further assessed disease severity by comparing SGTF-infected individuals diagnosed between Oct 1 and Nov 30, 2021, with delta variant-infected individuals diagnosed between April 1 and Nov 9, 2021. FINDINGS: From Oct 1 (week 39), 2021, to Dec 6 (week 49), 2021, 161 328 cases of COVID-19 were reported in South Africa. 38 282 people were diagnosed via TaqPath PCR tests and 29 721 SGTF infections and 1412 non-SGTF infections were identified. The proportion of SGTF infections increased from two (3·2%) of 63 in week 39 to 21 978 (97·9%) of 22 455 in week 48. After controlling for factors associated with hospitalisation, individuals with SGTF infections had significantly lower odds of admission than did those with non-SGTF infections (256 [2·4%] of 10 547 vs 121 [12·8%] of 948; adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0·2, 95% CI 0·1-0·3). After controlling for factors associated with disease severity, the odds of severe disease were similar between hospitalised individuals with SGTF versus non-SGTF infections (42 [21%] of 204 vs 45 [40%] of 113; aOR 0·7, 95% CI 0·3-1·4). Compared with individuals with earlier delta variant infections, SGTF-infected individuals had a significantly lower odds of severe disease (496 [62·5%] of 793 vs 57 [23·4%] of 244; aOR 0·3, 95% CI 0·2-0·5), after controlling for factors associated with disease severity. INTERPRETATION: Our early analyses suggest a significantly reduced odds of hospitalisation among individuals with SGTF versus non-SGTF infections diagnosed during the same time period. SGTF-infected individuals had a significantly reduced odds of severe disease compared with individuals infected earlier with the delta variant. Some of this reduced severity is probably a result of previous immunity. FUNDING: The South African Medical Research Council, the South African National Department of Health, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the African Society of Laboratory Medicine, Africa Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the Fleming Fund.

The evolving HIV epidemic and its impact on the HIV testing algorithm: Is it time to change the HIV testing algorithm in South Africa?

HIV-1/2 testing is the first step in ensuring HIV-infected individuals are diagnosed and appropriately managed. The impact of suboptimal HIV-1/2 testing algorithms significantly contributes to the increased rates of misdiagnosis of HIV infection. Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that high burden countries revise their testing algorithm from a 2 to 3-test testing strategy in the context of an evolving HIV epidemic. Implementation of a new HIV-testing algorithm must be tailor-made within a national framework and must be balanced out with operational feasibility, patient outcomes, and cost-effectiveness. In this review, we provide an overview of the current state of the HIV epidemic and its impact on HIV testing, further we highlight areas of concern in changing from a 2-step to a 3-step test algorithm in the context of South Africa's HIV epidemic and public health program.