Distinct Cortical-Thalamic-Striatal Circuits through the Parafascicular Nucleus.

The thalamic parafascicular nucleus (PF), an excitatory input to the basal ganglia, is targeted with deep-brain stimulation to alleviate a range of neuropsychiatric symptoms. Furthermore, PF lesions disrupt the execution of correct motor actions in uncertain environments. Nevertheless, the circuitry of the PF and its contribution to action selection are poorly understood. We find that, in mice, PF has the highest density of striatum-projecting neurons among all sub-cortical structures. This projection arises from transcriptionally and physiologically distinct classes of PF neurons that are also reciprocally connected with functionally distinct cortical regions, differentially innervate striatal neurons, and are not synaptically connected in PF. Thus, mouse PF contains heterogeneous neurons that are organized into parallel and independent associative, limbic, and somatosensory circuits. Furthermore, these subcircuits share motifs of cortical-PF-cortical and cortical-PF-striatum organization that allow each PF subregion, via its precise connectivity with cortex, to coordinate diverse inputs to striatum.

Tailoring light delivery for optogenetics by modal demultiplexing in tapered optical fibers.

Optogenetic control of neural activity in deep brain regions ideally requires precise and flexible light delivery with non-invasive devices. To this end, Tapered Optical Fibers (TFs) represent a versatile tool that can deliver light over either large brain volumes or spatially confined sub-regions, while being sensibly smaller than flat-cleaved optical fibers. In this work, we report on the possibility of further extending light emission length along the taper in the range 0.4 mm-3.0 mm by increasing the numerical aperture of the TFs to NA = 0.66. We investigated the dependence between the input angle of light (θin) and the output position along the taper, finding that for θin > 10° this relationship is linear. This mode-division demultiplexing property of the taper was confirmed with a ray tracing model and characterized for 473 nm and 561 nm light in quasi-transparent solution and in brain slices, with the two wavelengths used to illuminate simultaneously two different regions of the brain using only one waveguide. The results presented in this manuscript can guide neuroscientists to design their optogenetic experiments on the base of this mode-division demultiplexing approach, providing a tool that potentially allow for dynamic targeting of regions with diverse extension, from the mouse VTA up to the macaque visual cortex.

Dynamic illumination of spatially restricted or large brain volumes via a single tapered optical fiber.

Optogenetics promises precise spatiotemporal control of neural processes using light. However, the spatial extent of illumination within the brain is difficult to control and cannot be adjusted using standard fiber optics. We demonstrate that optical fibers with tapered tips can be used to illuminate either spatially restricted or large brain volumes. Remotely adjusting the light input angle to the fiber varies the light-emitting portion of the taper over several millimeters without movement of the implant. We use this mode to activate dorsal versus ventral striatum of individual mice and reveal different effects of each manipulation on motor behavior. Conversely, injecting light over the full numerical aperture of the fiber results in light emission from the entire taper surface, achieving broader and more efficient optogenetic activation of neurons, compared to standard flat-faced fiber stimulation. Thus, tapered fibers permit focal or broad illumination that can be precisely and dynamically matched to experimental needs.

Protein microarray analysis reveals BAFF-binding autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus.

Autoantibodies against cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors inhibit normal immunity and are implicated in inflammatory autoimmune disease and diseases of immune deficiency. In an effort to evaluate serum from autoimmune and immunodeficient patients for Abs against cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors in a high-throughput and unbiased manner, we constructed a multiplex protein microarray for detection of serum factor-binding Abs and used the microarray to detect autoantibody targets in SLE. We designed a nitrocellulose-surface microarray containing human cytokines, chemokines, and other circulating proteins and demonstrated that the array permitted specific detection of serum factor-binding probes. We used the arrays to detect previously described autoantibodies against cytokines in samples from individuals with autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1 and chronic mycobacterial infection. Serum profiling from individuals with SLE revealed that among several targets, elevated IgG autoantibody reactivity to B cell-activating factor (BAFF) was associated with SLE compared with control samples. BAFF reactivity correlated with the severity of disease-associated features, including IFN-α-driven SLE pathology. Our results showed that serum factor protein microarrays facilitate detection of autoantibody reactivity to serum factors in human samples and that BAFF-reactive autoantibodies may be associated with an elevated inflammatory disease state within the spectrum of SLE.

Protective effect of an elastase inhibitor in a neuromyelitis optica-like disease driven by a peptide of myelin oligodendroglial glycoprotein.

BACKGROUND: The pathology of neuromyelitis optica (NMO), in contrast to multiple sclerosis, comprises granulocyte infiltrates along extensive lengths of spinal cord, as well as optic nerve. Furthermore, IFN-ß treatment worsens NMO. We recently found that experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) induced with Th17 cells is exacerbated by IFN-ß, in contrast to disease induced with Th1 where treatment attenuated symptoms. OBJECTIVE: This study demonstrates the similarities between NMO and Th17 EAE and how neutrophils mediate pathology in Th17 disease. METHODS: Levels of blood biomarkers in NMO were assessed by Luminex and ELISA. Effects of IFN-ß on neutrophils were assessed by culture assays and immunofluorescence. EAE was induced by transfer of myelin-specific Th1 or Th17 cells and treated with Sivelestat sodium hydrate, a neutrophil elastase inhibitor. RESULTS: We show Th17 cytokines, granulocyte chemokines, type 1 interferon and neutrophil elastase are elevated in patients with definitive NMO. In culture, we find that IFN-ß stimulates neutrophils to release neutrophil elastase. In Th17 EAE, we demonstrate neutrophilic infiltration in the optic nerve and spinal cord which was not present in Th1 EAE. Blockade of neutrophil elastase with Sivelestat had efficacy in Th17 EAE but not Th1 EAE. CONCLUSIONS: The similarities between Th17 EAE and NMO indicate that this model represents several aspects of NMO. Neutrophils are critical in the pathologies of both Th17-EAE and NMO, and therefore blockade of neutrophil elastase is a promising target in treating NMO.

Specific post-translational histone modifications of neutrophil extracellular traps as immunogens and potential targets of lupus autoantibodies.

INTRODUCTION: Autoreactivity to histones is a pervasive feature of several human autoimmune disorders, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Specific post-translational modifications (PTMs) of histones within neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) may potentially drive the process by which tolerance to these chromatin-associated proteins is broken. We hypothesized that NETs and their unique histone PTMs might be capable of inducing autoantibodies that target histones. METHODS: We developed a novel and efficient method for the in vitro production, visualization, and broad profiling of histone-PTMs of human and murine NETs. We also immunized Balb/c mice with murine NETs and profiled their sera on autoantigen and histone peptide microarrays for evidence of autoantibody production to their immunogen. RESULTS: We confirmed specificity toward acetyl-modified histone H2B as well as to other histone PTMs in sera from patients with SLE known to have autoreactivity against histones. We observed enrichment for distinctive histone marks of transcriptionally silent DNA during NETosis triggered by diverse stimuli. However, NETs derived from human and murine sources did not harbor many of the PTMs toward which autoreactivity was observed in patients with SLE or in MRL/lpr mice. Further, while murine NETs were weak autoantigens in vivo, there was only partial overlap in the immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM autoantibody profiles induced by vaccination of mice with NETs and those seen in patients with SLE. CONCLUSIONS: Isolated in vivo exposure to NETs is insufficient to break tolerance and may involve additional factors that have yet to be identified.

Malfunctioning DNA damage response (DDR) leads to the degeneration of nigro-striatal pathway in mouse brain.

Pronounced neuropathology is a feature of ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) and Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS), which are both genomic instability syndromes. The Nbs1 protein, which is defective in NBS, is a component of the Mre11/RAD50/NBS1 (MRN) complex. This complex plays a major role in the early phase of the cellular response to double strand breaks (DSBs) in the DNA. Among others, MRN is required for timely activation of the protein kinase ATM (A-T mutated), which is disrupted in patients with A-T. Earlier reports show that Atm-deficient mice exhibit severe degeneration of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive dopaminergic nigro-striatal neurons and their terminals in the striatum. This cell loss is accompanied by a large reduction in immunoreactivity for the dopamine transporter protein (DAT) in the striatum. To test whether Nbs1 inactivation also affects the integrity of the nigro-striatal pathway, we examined this pathway in a murine model with conditional inactivation of the Nbs1 gene in central nervous system (Nbs1-CNS-Δ). We report that this model has a reduction in TH-positive cells in the substantia nigra. This phenomenon was seen at very early age, while Atm-/- mice showed a progressive age-dependent reduction. Furthermore, we observed an age-dependent increase in the level of TH in the striatum of Atm-/- and Nbs1-CNS-Δ mice. In addition to the altered expression of TH, we also found a reduction of DAT in the striatum of both Atm-/- and Nbs1-CNS-Δ mice at 60 days of age. Finally, microglial recruitment and alterations in the levels of various neurotrophic factors were also observed. These results indicate that malfunctioning DNA damage response severely affects the integrity of the nigro-striatal pathway and suggest a new neurodegenerative pathway in Parkinsonian syndromes.