Evaluation of Orexin-A Salivary Levels and its Correlation with Attention After Non-invasive Brain Stimulation in Female Volleyball Players.

BACKGROUND: The capacity to change attention from one area to another depending on the many environmental circumstances present is a crucial aspect of selective attention and is strictly correlated to reaction time. The cholinergic system of the basal forebrain is crucial for attentive abilities. Several inputs, particularly orexin neurons, whose cell bodies are found in the postero-lateral hypothalamus, can activate the cholinergic system. The aim of this study was to investigate if high frequencies rTMS at dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in highly trained volleyball players can change Orexin-A levels, attention and reaction time. This study was a double-blinded (participant and evaluator) matched-pair experimental design. Twenty right-handed female volleyball players were recruited for the study (age 24.6 ± 2.7 years; height 177.0 ± 5.5 cm; body mass 67.5 ± 6.5 kg; BMI 21.5 ± 1.2). RESULTS: The main finding of this study was that 10 Hz rTMS to the DLPFC seems to increase Orexin-A salivary levels and the percentage of correct answers, while decreasing RT. After rTMS, the athletes show an increase in the percentage of correct answers immediately after the end of stimulation, and also after 15 and 30 min. Moreover, the athletes show decreases in reaction time after the end of stimulation and after 15 and 30 min to the end of stimulation, while no differences were found at the end of stimulation. Finally, the athletes show significant increases in Orexin-A salivary levels after stimulation with a peak after 30' of the end. CONCLUSION: The results of our study seem to indicate that there is a relationship between salivary Orexin-A levels and RT. These results could provide useful tools for modulating sports training; in fact, if confirmed, they could lead coaches to offer their athletes rTMS sessions appropriately integrated with training. In fact, alternating attention is a mental flexibility that enables people to change their point of focus and switch between tasks requiring various levels of cognition.

Ketogenic Diet and Breast Cancer: Recent Findings and Therapeutic Approaches.

Breast cancer (BC), a complex disease with several influencing factors, is significantly impacted by dietary habits. The ketogenic diet (KD), characterized by high fat and low carbohydrate intake, has gained attention as a potential therapeutic approach, but its effects on BC remain unclear. This review seeks to summarize the current knowledge on the principles of the KD, its metabolic influence on BC cells, and the findings of recent clinical trials, in order to elucidate the potential therapeutic role of the KD in BC management. For these purposes, a comprehensive literature review was conducted selecting preclinical and clinical studies that investigate the relationship between the KD and BC. The selection criteria prioritized studies exploring the KD's metabolic effects on BC cells and current clinical trials involving the KD in BC management. The reviewed studies provide a diverse range of findings, with some suggesting potential benefits of the KD in inhibiting tumor growth and improving treatment response. However, robust clinical trials providing clear evidence of the KD's efficacy as a standalone therapeutic approach in BC are still lacking. There are also significant concerns regarding the safety and long-term effects of sustained ketosis in cancer patients. The therapeutic potential of the KD in BC remains an area of active research and debate. While preliminary findings are promising, definitive conclusions are hindered by inconsistent results and limited human trial data. Future research, specifically well-structured, large-scale clinical trials, is necessary to provide a comprehensive understanding of the role of the KD in BC treatment. Until then, caution should be exercised in its application, and patients should continue prioritizing evidence-based, standard-of-care treatments.

Acute non invasive brain stimulation improves performances in volleyball players.

OBJECTIVES: The ability to redirect one's attention in response to various environmental situations is a crucial aspect of selective attention in team sports. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in volleyball players can improve Posner test response and cortical excitability. This study had a double-blinded (participant and evaluator) matched-pair experimental design. METHODS: Twenty right-handed female volleyball players were recruited for the study and randomly assigned to either the active rTMS group (n = 10) or the sham stimulation group (n = 10). The stimulation was performed in one session with 10 Hz, 80% of the resting motor threshold (RMT), 5 s of stimulation, and 15 s of rest, for a total of 1,500 pulses. Before and after stimulation, the Posner test and cortical excitability were evaluated. RESULTS: The significant finding of this paper was that 10 Hz rTMS to the DLPFC seemed to improve Posner test response, and also resulted in a significantly decreased RMT and MEP latency of the ipsilateral motor cortex. After stimulation, the active group showed a significant decrease in the percentage of errors in the Posner test. Moreover, active group showed faster RT after rTMS, suggesting that HF stimulation could enhance performance. Additionally, significant differences in RMT emerged in the active rTMS group after stimulation, while no differences were observed in MEP latency and MEP amplitude. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, we believe that these results may be of great interest to the scientific community and could have practical implications in the future.

Agomelatine: A Potential Multitarget Compound for Neurodevelopmental Disorders.

Agomelatine (AGM) is one of the latest atypical antidepressants, prescribed exclusively for the treatment of depression in adults. AGM belongs to the pharmaceutical class of melatonin agonist and selective serotonin antagonist ("MASS"), as it acts both as a selective agonist of melatonin receptors MT1 and MT2, and as a selective antagonist of 5-HT2C/5-HT2B receptors. AGM is involved in the resynchronization of interrupted circadian rhythms, with beneficial effects on sleep patterns, while antagonism on serotonin receptors increases the availability of norepinephrine and dopamine in the prefrontal cortex, with an antidepressant and nootropic effect. The use of AGM in the pediatric population is limited by the scarcity of data. In addition, few studies and case reports have been published on the use of AGM in patients with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Considering this evidence, the purpose of this review is to report the potential role of AGM in neurological developmental disorders. AGM would increase the expression of the cytoskeleton-associated protein (ARC) in the prefrontal cortex, with optimization of learning, long-term memory consolidation, and improved survival of neurons. Another important feature of AGM is the ability to modulate glutamatergic neurotransmission in regions associated with mood and cognition. With its synergistic activity a melatoninergic agonist and an antagonist of 5-HT2C, AGM acts as an antidepressant, psychostimulant, and promoter of neuronal plasticity, regulating cognitive symptoms, resynchronizing circadian rhythms in patients with autism, ADHD, anxiety, and depression. Given its good tolerability and good compliance, it could potentially be administered to adolescents and children.

High frequencies (HF) repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) increase motor coordination performances in volleyball players.

INTRODUCTION: It is widely demonstrated that high frequency (HF) repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has facilitative effects and is therefore capable to inducing changes in motor responses. One of the most investigated areas is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) as it plays a special executive attention role in actively preserving access to stimulus representations and objectives in environments with plenty of distraction such as those of team sports. Volleyball is a team sport in which the attention and coordination components are essential for achieving performance. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate if HF rTMS at DLPFC in volleyball players can improve homolateral motor coordination and cortical excitability. RESULTS: This study was a double-blinded (participant and evaluator) matched-pair experimental design. Twenty right-handed female volleyball players were recruited for the study and were randomly assigned either the active rTMS (n = 10) or the sham stimulation group (n = 10). The stimulation was performed in one session with 10 Hz, 80% of the resting motor threshold (RMT) of the right first dorsal interosseous muscle, 5 s of stimulation, and 15 s of rest, for a total of 1500 pulses. Before and after stimulation, the coordination and the cortical excitability were evaluated. The significant finding of this paper was that HF-rTMS of the DLPFC improved performance in terms of the homolateral interlimb coordination, with a significantly decreased in resting motor threshold and MEP latency of the ipsilateral motor cortex. It seem that HF-rTMS could increase coordination performances when the velocity of the execution is higher (120 bpm and 180 bpm). CONCLUSION: Moreover, in active rTMS group significant differences emerged after stimulation in RMT and in MEP latency, while no differences emerged after stimulation in MEP amplitude. In conclusion we believe that these results may be of great interest to the scientific community and may also have practical implications in the future.

Effectiveness and Safety of a New Nutrient Fixed Combination Containing Pollen Extract Plus Teupolioside, in the Management of LUTS in Patients with Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy: A Pilot Study.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a common cause of male lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) that can reduce quality of life. Even if several drugs can be used in its treatment, the development of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) represents the most common cause of low adherence. In the present study, we evaluate both the efficacy and the safety of a new nutrient fixed combination of Pollen Extract plus Teupolioside, named Xipag®, in patients with LUTS. We conduct a pilot single center open label clinical study between 1 March 2020 and 30 June 2020 in patients with BPH referred to general practitioner's ambulatories. Male patients > 45 years, sexually active, with clinical symptoms of LUTS and with a diagnosis of HPB were enrolled and received one tablet/day of Xipag® (T0), for three months (T1: end of treatment). The IPSS and IIEF-5 questionnaires were carried out at T0 and T1 and represent the first end point, whereas the primary safety end point was considered the absence of ADR or of drug−drug interactions related to Xipag® administration. During the study period, 25 subjects aged 43 to 76 years (mean 62.7 ± 9) were enrolled and completed the study. The clinical evaluation in T1 documented that Xipag® induced a statistically significant improvement (p < 0.01) in symptoms, as documented by the IPSS questionnaire (range 22.7−88.9; mean 55.2 ± 23.6), without the development of ADRs. In conclusion, this is the first real-world study that showed the efficacy and the safety of Xipag® in the BPH patients with LUTS.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation as a Tool to Investigate Motor Cortex Excitability in Sport.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation, since its introduction in 1985, has brought important innovations to the study of cortical excitability as it is a non-invasive method and, therefore, can be used both in healthy and sick subjects. Since the introduction of this cortical stimulation technique, it has been possible to deepen the neurophysiological aspects of motor activation and control. In this narrative review, we want to provide a brief overview regarding TMS as a tool to investigate changes in cortex excitability in athletes and highlight how this tool can be used to investigate the acute and chronic responses of the motor cortex in sport science. The parameters that could be used for the evaluation of cortical excitability and the relative relationship with motor coordination and muscle fatigue, will be also analyzed. Repetitive physical training is generally considered as a principal strategy for acquiring a motor skill, and this process can elicit cortical motor representational changes referred to as use-dependent plasticity. In training settings, physical practice combined with the observation of target movements can enhance cortical excitability and facilitate the process of learning. The data to date suggest that TMS is a valid technique to investigate the changes in motor cortex excitability in trained and untrained subjects. Recently, interest in the possible ergogenic effect of non-invasive brain stimulation in sport is growing and therefore in the future it could be useful to conduct new experiments to evaluate the impact on learning and motor performance of these techniques.

Aerobic Exercise and Metabolic Syndrome: The Role of Sympathetic Activity and the Redox System.

BACKGROUND: Aerobic exercise can greatly assist in reducing collateral effects of metabolic syndrome (MetS). Moreover, aerobic exercise is associated with sympathetic activation and adaptive responses to sustain muscle engagement, changes in the release of Orexin A, a pleiotropic neuropeptide. AIM: The aim of this study was to analyze the beneficial effects of aerobic exercise without dietary changes, in a cohort of MetS subjects, focusing on the role of sympathetic and orexinergic activity. Several blood parameters linked to MetS ROS production, heart rate, galvanic skin response, d-ROM test, and Orexin A serum levels were evaluated in ten males with MetS (BMI 30-34.9) before and after a period of 6 months of aerobic exercise compared to ten healthy subjects. METHODS: Ten male subjects (aged 54 ± 4.16) with MetS (MetS group) and ten healthy males (aged 49.7 ± 2.79, Healthy group) were told about the study protocol and possible risks, signed the informed consent, and voluntarily participated in the study. Several blood parameters were evaluated in the two tested groups and were re-evaluated in the MetS group after 6 months of training (MetS6M group). The training protocol consisted of more than 30 min/day of walking (average speed of 4.5 km/h) and 3 days/week of aerobic activities (jogging under heart rate control - 120-140 bpm for 45 min). RESULTS: The results showed that exercise induced a significant increase in GSR and plasma Orexin A but no significant increase in d-ROM values. Significant decreases in the serum ALT enzyme, triglycerides, and total cholesterol were found, while the HDL levels were significantly higher. Finally, a significant reduction of BMI and resting HR were reported. CONCLUSION: The results of this study confirm that physical activity is associated with sympathetic activation, having a pivotal role against adverse effects linked to MetS. Moreover, this study demonstrates that, in patients with MetS, Orexin A is involved in hormonal adaptations to exercise.

The Important Role of Adiponectin and Orexin-A, Two Key Proteins Improving Healthy Status: Focus on Physical Activity.

Exercise represents the most important integrative therapy in metabolic, immunologic and chronic diseases; it represents a valid strategy in the non-pharmacological intervention of lifestyle linked diseases. A large body of evidence indicates physical exercise as an effective measure against chronic non-communicable diseases. The worldwide general evidence for health benefits are both for all ages and skill levels. In a dysregulated lifestyle such as in the obesity, there is an imbalance in the production of different cytokines. In particular, we focused on Adiponectin, an adipokine producted by adipose tissue, and on Orexin-A, a neuropeptide synthesized in the lateral hypothalamus. The production of both Adiponectin and Orexin-A increases following regular and structured physical activity and both these hormones have similar actions. Indeed, they improve energy and glucose metabolism, and also modulate energy expenditure and thermogenesis. In addition, a relevant biological role of Adiponectin and Orexin A has been recently highlighted in the immune system, where they function as immune-suppressor factors. The strong connection between these two cytokines and healthy status is mediated by physical activity and candidates these hormones as potential biomarkers of the beneficial effects induced by physical activity. For these reasons, this review aims to underly the interconnections among Adiponectin, Orexin-A, physical activity and healthy status. Furthermore, it is analyzed the involvement of Adiponectin and Orexin-A in physical activity as physiological factors improving healthy status through physical exercise.

Inhibition of aldose-reductase-2 by a benzofuroxane derivative bf-5m increases the expression of kcne1, kcnq1 in high glucose cultured H9c2 cardiac cells and sudden cardiac death.

Long QT syndrome (LQTS) is characterized by prolonged QT interval, leading to sudden cardiac death. Hyperglycemia is an important risk factor for LQTS, inhibiting the cardiac rapid component delayed rectifier K+ current (Iks), responsible for QT interval. We previously showed that the new ALR2 inhibitor BF-5m supplies cardioprotection from QT prolongation induced by high glucose concentration in the medium, reducing QT interval prolongation and preserving morphology. Here we investigated the effects of BF-5m on cell cytotoxicity and viability in H9c2 cells, and on cellular potassium ion channels expression. H9c2 cells were grown in medium with high glucose and high glucose plus the BF-5m by assessing the cytotoxic effects and the cell survival rate. In addition, KCNE1 and KCNQ1 expression in plasma and mitochondrial membranes were monitored. Also, the expression levels of miR-1 proved to suppress KCNQ1 and KCNE1, were analyzed. BF-5m treatment reduced the cytotoxic effects of high glucose on H9c2 cells by increasing cell survival rate and improving H9c2 morphology. Plasmatic KCNE1 and KCNQ1 expression levels were restored by BF-5m in H9c2 exposed to high glucose, down-regulating miR-1. These results suggest that BF-5m exerts cardioprotection from high glucose in rat heart ventricle H9c2 cells exposed to high glucose.

Functional Changes Induced by Orexin A and Adiponectin on the Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Balance.

Obesity and lifestyle-related diseases are major problems faced by people in developed nations. Although exercise training prevents the progression of diabetes and obesity, the motivation for exercise is generally low in obese animals and humans. The autonomic nervous system (SNA) plays a crucial role in the regulation of eating behavior. Moreover, the SNA is involved in the body temperature regulation that is strictly related to body weight control, in accordance with the "thermoregulatory hypothesis" of food intake. Some neuronal peptides and hormones, like orexins and adiponectin, are also involved in the regulation of locomotion activity as well as food intake and metabolic rate. Furthermore, adiponectin as well as orexin A are involved in the control of body temperature, food intake and therefore in obesity-related diseases. The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in body temperature (Tc), and heart rate (HR) after an intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of orexin A and adiponectin in animal model. The results of this study show that the orexin A levels are likely involved in the increase of Tc and HR. It is also clear that there is not a correlation between these parameters and adiponectin levels. Further studies are needed to assess adiponectin actions and outcome in the central nervous system in terms of energy expenditure, body temperature, heart rate and physical activity performance regulation.

Influence of Football on Physiological Cardiac Indexes in Professional and Young Athletes.

Background: After long-term intensive training, considerable morphological and functional heart changes occur in professional athletes. Such changes arise progressively and regress upon interruption of the physical activity. Morphological and functional alterations on heart are known as "Athlete's heart" condition. Objective: This study aims to compare echocardiographic parameters in two different groups of professional athletes. Furthermore, a prospective study is performed analyzing the echocardiographic changes occurring in 12 professional players in 3 years of follow-up. Materials and Methods: 78 football players were examined from July 2011 to May 2016 (40 enrolled in Group A and 38 in Group B). Twelve players of GROUP A were followed for 3 consecutive seasons. The general clinical examination, the cardiopulmonary evaluation, the ECG, the ergometer stress test, the spirometric examination and the standard cardiac eco color doppler test were recorded. Results: Left ventricle dimensions, left atrium dimensions, and interventricular septum dimensions were higher in A players than in B players. Moreover, following up 12 players for 3 years, a statistically significant increase of such values was observed. Discussion: In A players, higher dimensions of the left chambers and the interventricular septum were observed, compared to B players. No statistically significant difference was found regarding the ejection fraction. The 3 years follow-up showed a statistically significant increase of both left chambers and interventricular septum dimensions, particularly in the second and third year. Conclusions: These findings demonstrated that A players have higher echocardiographic parameters respect to B players. The results of this study support the scientific theory that long-term intensive training influences heart function, inducing "athlete's heart" with morphological adaptations. No significant echocardiographic variation within the examined sample was observed for different roles (goalkeeper, defender, midfielder, or attacker) or skills of individual players.

Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Parasomnias and Migraine: A Role of Orexinergic Projections.

INTRODUCTION: Sleep and migraine share a common pathophysiological substrate, although the underlying mechanisms are unknown. The serotonergic and orexinergic systems are both involved in the regulation of sleep/wake cycle, and numerous studies show that both are involved in the migraine etiopathogenesis. These two systems are anatomically and functionally interconnected. Our hypothesis is that in migraine a dysfunction of orexinergic projections on the median raphe (MR) nuclei, interfering with serotonergic regulation, may cause Non-Rapid Eye Movement parasomnias, such as somnambulism. HYPOTHESIS/THEORY: Acting on the serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei, the dysfunction of orexinergic neurons would lead to a higher release of serotonin. The activation of serotonergic receptors located on the walls of large cerebral vessels would lead to abnormal vasodilatation and consequently increase transmural pressure. This process could activate the trigeminal nerve terminals that innervate vascular walls. As a consequence, there is activation of sensory nerve endings at the level of hard vessels in the meninges, with release of pro-inflammatory peptides (e.g., substance P and CGRP). Within this hypothetical frame, the released serotonin could also interact with trigeminovascular afferents to activate and/or facilitate the release of the neuropeptide at the level of the trigeminal ganglion. The dysregulation of the physiological negative feedback of serotonin on the orexinergic neurons, in turn, would contribute to an alteration of the whole system, altering the sleep-wake cycle. CONCLUSION: Serotonergic neurons of the MR nuclei receive an excitatory input from hypothalamic orexin/hypocretin neurons and reciprocally inhibit orexin/hypocretin neurons through the serotonin 1A receptor (or 5-HT1A receptor). Considering this complex system, if there is an alteration it may facilitate the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the migraine, while it may produce at the same time an alteration of the sleep-wake rhythm, causing sleep disorders such as sleepwalking. Understanding the complex mechanisms underlying migraine and sleep disorders and how these mechanisms can interact with each other, it would be crucial to pave the way for new therapeutic strategies.

Heart rate variability as predictive factor for sudden cardiac death.

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) represents about 25% of deaths in clinical cardiology. The identification of risk factors for SCD is the philosopher's stone of cardiology and the identification of non-invasive markers of risk of SCD remains one of the most important goals for the scientific community.The aim of this review is to analyze the state of the art around the heart rate variability (HRV) as a predictor factor for SCD.HRV is probably the most analyzed index in cardiovascular risk stratification technical literature, therefore an important number of models and methods have been developed.Nowadays, low HRV has been shown to be independently predictive of increased mortality in post- myocardial infarction patients, heart failure patients, in contrast with the data of the general population.Contrariwise, the relationship between HRV and SCD has received scarce attention in low-risk cohorts. Furthermore, in general population the attributable risk is modest and the cost/benefit ratio is not always convenient.The HRV evaluation could become an important tool for health status in risks population, even though the use of HRV alone for risk stratification of SCD is limited and further studies are needed.

Functional Changes of Orexinergic Reaction to Psychoactive Substances.

It is becoming increasingly apparent the importance of the central nervous system (CNS) as the major contributor to the regulation of systemic metabolism. Antipsychotic drugs are used often to treat several psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder However, antipsychotic drugs prescription, particularly the second-generation ones (SGAs), such as clozapine and olanzapine, is related to a considerable weight gain which usually leads to obesity. The aim of this paper is to assess the influence of orexin A on sympathetic and hyperthermic reactions to several neuroleptic drugs. Orexin A is a neuropeptide which effects both body temperature and food intake by increasing sympathetic activity. Orexin A-mediated hyperthermia is reduced by haloperidol and is blocked by clozapine and olanzapine. Orexin A-mediated body temperature elevation is increased by risperidone. These hyperthermic effects are delayed by quietapine. In this paper, it is discussed the orexinergic pathway activation by neuroleptic drugs and its influence on human therapeutic strategies. With the aim to determine that neuroleptic drugs mediate body temperature control through to the orexinergic system, we summarized our previously published data. Psychiatric disorders increase the risk of developing metabolic disorders (e.g., weight gain, increased blood pressure, and glucose or lipid levels). Therefore, the choice of antipsychotic drug to be prescribed, based on the relevant risks and benefits of each individual drug, has an essential role in human health prevention.

Role of Sex Hormones in the Control of Vegetative and Metabolic Functions of Middle-Aged Women.

Aims: In women's life, menopause is characterized by significant physiological changes often associated with an increase in body mass and obesity-associated sicknesses. Numerous researches described interdependencies of estrogen deficiency, aging, and resting energy expenditure (REE) downfall in the obesity correlated with the menopause. The aim of this study was to determining whether healthy, obese menopausal women underwent HRT treatment, showed changes in their REE, autonomic asset, and assessment of oxidative stress in comparison with obese pre- and post-menopausal women. Methodology: In this study, we measured the body composition, the REE, the oxidative stress, the diet assimilation, and the autonomic nervous system activity in three groups: pre-menopause women (n = 50), post-menopause women following hormone-replacement therapy (HRT; n = 50), and post-menopause women not following HRT (n = 50). Results: In the group with HRT a significant increase of the sympathetic activity and REE was described. Finally this group showed a notable increment of oxidative stress compared with the others, and utilizing BIA instrument, the free fat mass was increased respect to the fat mass of obese women. Conclusion: The study highlights the importance of the HRT-related physiological changes that influence body weight in menopause women. This results are important because have a practical implications for prevention and/or treatment of the obesity.

Primary Motor Cortex Excitability in Karate Athletes: A Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Study.

Purpose: The mechanisms involved in the coordination of muscle activity are not completely known: to investigate adaptive changes in human motor cortex Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was often used. The sport models are frequently used to study how the training may affect the corticospinal system excitability: Karate represents a valuable sport model for this kind of investigations for its high levels of coordination required to athletes. This study was aimed at examining possible changes in the resting motor threshold (rMT) and in the corticospinal response in karate athletes, and at determining whether athletes are characterized by a specific value of rMT. Methods: We recruited 25 right-handed young karate athletes and 25 matched non-athletes. TMS was applied to primary motor cortex (M1). Motor evoked potential (MEP) were recorded by two electrodes placed above the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle. We considered MEP latencies and amplitudes at rMT, 110% of rMT, and 120% of rMT. Results: The two groups were similar for age (p > 0.05), height (p > 0.05) and body mass (p > 0.05). The TMS had a 70-mm figure-of-eight coil and a maximum output of 2.2 T, placed over the left motor cortex. During the stimulation, a mechanical arm kept the coil tangential to the scalp, with the handle at 45° respect to the midline. The SofTaxic navigator system (E.M.S. Italy, www.emsmedical.net) was used in order to correctly identifying and repeating the stimulation for every subject. Compared to non-athletes, athletes showed a lower resting motor threshold (p < 0.001). Furthermore, athletes had a lower MEP latency (p < 0.001) and a higher MEP amplitude (p < 0.001) compared to non-athletes. Moreover, a ROC curve for rMT was found significant (area: 0.907; sensitivity 84%, specificity 76%). Conclusions: As the main finding, the present study showed significant differences in cortical excitability between athletes and non-athletes. The training can improve cortical excitability inducing athletes' modifications, as demonstrated in rMT and MEP values. These finding support the hypothesis that the sport practice determines specific brain organizations in relationship with the sport challenges.