[Laparoscopic right-side partial nephrectomy with fluorescence imaging in the near infrared spectrum using indocyanine green].

A clinical case of the use of fluorescence imaging in the near infrared spectrum with indocyanine green during laparoscopic right-side partial nephrectomy is presented in the article.

[Percutaneous nephrolithotomy in a patient after liver transplantation].

The work is devoted to the description of percutaneous nephrolithotomy in a patient who previously underwent liver transplantation. In case of immunodeficiency of any etiology, one-stage non-severe kidney injury is less dangerous compared to infectious and inflammatory complications, which naturally have more severe course compared to in those with intact immune system. Based on these considerations, the patient underwent percutaneous nephrolithotomy, which allowed to remove the stone of 2.5 cm in size without any complications. The choice of surgical treatment and management tactics for this category of patients are described in detail in the article.

[Comparative study of the efficacy and safety of a new generation of thulium fiber lasers for ureteroscopy and lithotripsy].

INTRODUCTION: The development and implementation in clinical practice of a 3rd generation thulium fiber laser with the possibility of computer control (modulation) of the shape, amplitude and pulse repetition rate opens up new possibilities for thulium fiber laser lithotripsy. AIM: To carry out a comparative study of the efficacy and safety of thulium fiber laser lithotripsy using a of the 2nd (FiberLase U3) and 3rd generation devices (FiberLase U-MAX). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 218 patients with solitary ureteral stones, who underwent to ureteroscopy with lithotripsy using 2nd and 3rd generation thulium fiber lasers (IRE-Polus, Russia) from January 2020 to May 2022 with the same peak power (500 W), laser settings of 1 joule, 10 Hz and with a laser fiber diameter of 365 m, were included in the prospective study. For lithotripsy using FiberLase U-MAX laser a new original modulated pulse, which was found and optimized in a preclinical study, was used. Depending on the laser, the patients were divided into 2 groups. In 111 patients, stone fragmentation was performed on FiberLase U3 (2nd generation), while 107 patients were undergone to lithotripsy on a new laser device FiberLase U-MAX (3rd generation). Stone size ranged from 6 mm to 28 mm (11+/-4 mm). The duration of procedure and lithotripsy, the quality of the endoscopic picture during fragmentation (from 0 to 3 points, 0-bad, 3-excellent), the frequency of retrograde migration of stones, as well as damage to ureteral mucosa (of 1-3 degrees) were evaluated. RESULTS: The time of lithotripsy was significantly lower in the group 2 than in the group 1 (12.3+/-4.6 vs. 24.7+/-6.2 min; p<0.05). The average quality of the endoscopic picture was significantly better in the group 2 (2.5+/-0.4 vs. 1.8+/-0.2 points; p<0.05). Clinically significant retrograde migration of stone or its fragments (the need for additional ESWL, flexible ureteroscopy) was noted in 16% vs. 8% of patients in group 1 and 2, respectively (p<0.05). Damage to ureteral mucosa of the 1st and 2nd degree due to laser exposure in the group 1 was noted in 24 (22%) and 8 (7%) cases, compared to 21 (20%) and 7 (7%) cases in group 2, respectively. Stone-free state was 84% in group 1 and 92% in group 2. CONCLUSION: Modulation of the laser pulse shape allowed to improve endoscopic visibility, increase the speed of lithotripsy, reduce the frequency of retrograde stone migration without increasing the trauma to ureteral mucosa.

[Experience in the use of confocal laser endomicroscopy for the diagnosis of bladder papillary tumors].

INTRODUCTION: Visual confirmation of suspicious changes in the urinary tract mucosa is the cornerstone in the diagnosis of urothelial cancer. However, with bladder tumors, it is impossible to obtain histopathological data during cystoscopy both in white light and in photodynamic and narrow-spectrum modes, as well as with computerized chromoendoscopy. Confocal laser endomicroscopy (probe-based confocal laser endomicroscopy - pCLE) is an optical imaging technique that provides high-resolution in vivo imaging and real-time evaluation of urothelial lesions. AIM: To assess the diagnostic capabilities of pCLE in papillary bladder tumors and compare its results with standard pathomorphological study. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 38 patients (27 men, 11 women, aged 41-82 years) with primary bladder tumors diagnosed on the imaging methods were included in the study. For the diagnosis and treatment, all patients underwent transurethral resection (TUR) of the bladder. When a standard white light cystoscopy with assessment of the entire urothelium, 10% sodium fluorescein was administrated intravenously as a contrast dye. pCLE was performed with CystoFlexTMUHD 2.6 mm (7.8 Fr) probe, which was passed through the 26 Fr resectoscope using a telescope bridge to visualize normal and pathological urothelial lesions. A laser with a wavelength of 488 nm and a speed of 8 to 12 frames per second allowed to obtain an endomicroscopic image. These images were compared with standard histopathological analysis using hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining of tumor fragments removed during TUR of the bladder. RESULTS: Based on real-time pCLE, 23 patients had a diagnosis of low-grade urothelial carcinoma, while in 12 patients the endomicroscopic picture corresponded to high-grade urothelial carcinoma, 2 patients had typical changes for inflammatory process and 1 case of carcinoma in situ was suspected, which was confirmed by histopathological study. Endomicroscopic images demonstrated clear differences between normal bladder mucosa and high- and low-grade tumors. In the normal urothelium, the larger umbrella cells are located most superficially, followed by smaller intermediate cells, as well as the lamina propria with blood vessels network. In contrast, low-grade urothelial carcinoma is characterized by denser, normal-shaped small cells located superficially than a central fibrovascular core. High-grade urothelial carcinoma exhibits markedly irregular cell architecture and cellular pleomorphism. CONCLUSION: pCLE is a promising new method for in-vivo diagnosing of bladder cancer. Our results show its potential for endoscopic determination of the histological characteristics of bladder tumors and the ability to differentiate between benign and malignant processes, as well as the histological grade of tumor cells.

[Current state of metaphylaxis of urinary stones in Russian Federation].

INTRODUCTION: Urolithiasis is one of the most common urological diseases in adults. Increased life expectancy of the population in developed countries, make urolithiasis topical issue and requires close attention. Due to the high risk of recurrent stone formation causing repeated surgical interventions, the issue of effective urinary stone metaphylaxis is very important today. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To study the current state of the problem of urolithiasis metaphylaxis among Russian urologists, an anonymous questionnaire was applied. A 25-question questionnaire was sent to e-mail to more than 4,000 Russian urologists. A total of 1,238 specialists completed the questionnaire. The database compiled from the received responses was processed and presented with descriptive statistics in the form of tables and charts. RESULTS: According to the survey, more than half of the 831 (67.1%) specialists specialized in the treatment of urolithiasis. It was noted that 626 (86%) inpatient urologists and 205 (40%) outpatient urologists specialized in the treatment of urolithiasis. Only 521 (69.6%) urologists specializing in surgical treatment of urolithiasis give a patient a stone fragment to analyze its chemical composition. At the same time, half of the respondents reported that less than 10% of patients come to them for further metaphylaxis. One of the main reasons for not analyzing the chemical composition of the stone was the fact that 877 (70,84%) specialists indicated the inaccessibility of analysis under the state guarantee program, 503 (40,63%) specialists indicated the patients satisfaction with the results of minimally invasive surgical treatment and lack of sufficient motivation for further examinations. At the same time, less than 3% of specialists can perform stone analysis within the framework of the state guaranty program. 1180 (96,8%) respondents practiced the prophylaxis of recurrent calculi formation, but only 336 (28,47%) performed comprehensive metabolic examination of all patients followed by prescription of drug therapy and appropriate diet. CONCLUSIONS: Our survey revealed low involvement of urologists at the outpatient level in the process of conservative treatment and metaphylaxis of urolithiasis, low activity of urologists in performing complex metabolic study and comprehensive prevention of recurrent stone formation, low percentage of performing chemical composition analysis of stone and low activity of urologists in performing primary litholytic therapy of urate stones. Based on this analysis of the responses of most Russian urologists, it is possible to formulate recommendations to remove the obstacles to providing patients with urolithiasis with quality medical care in terms of conservative therapy and metaphylaxis of urolithiasis.

[Challenges in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of encrusted cystitis].

Encrusted cystitis (IC) is a rare chronic inflammatory disorder of the bladder characterized by mucosal inflammation with encrustations. This pathological process is directly related to the activity of urea-splitting bacteria in the urine. Bladder encrustations are deposits of ammonium and magnesium phosphate, as well as struvite, on the surface of the urothelium. However, the pathogenesis of this disease has not been thoroughly studied. Treatment of encrusted cystitis is aimed to complete eradication of the uropathogen, surgical removal of encrustations, and lowering urine pH. Early diagnosis is a key prerequisite for effective treatment.

[X-ray endoscopic treatment in patients with ureteral anastomotic obliteration after orthotopic neobladder formation].

INTRODUCTION: Strictures and obliterations of ureteral anastomosis after radical cystectomy with orthotopic neobladder reconstruction occur in 8-13% of cases, mainly in the first 2 years after surgery. According to the European Association of Urology guidelines, open reconstruction is considered the "gold standard" for the treatment of those patients. At the same time, according to various publications, X-ray endoscopic treatment of ureteral anastomotic strictures can be performed, especially in patients who have undergone orthotopic neobladder reconstruction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three clinical cases of endoscopic treatment of ureteral anastomotic obliteration after orthotopic neobladder formation are presented. In all patients, nephrostomy tube was initially put due to acute pyelonephritis. Obliteration of the ureteral anastomosis was diagnosed by contrast-enhanced multispiral computed tomography and antegrade pyelography. The length of obliteration in all patients did not exceed 1.0 cm. The recurrence of the bladder cancer was excluded. After percutaneous opacification of the pelvicalyceal system and advancement of two guidewires ("working" and "safety") to the level of ureteral obliteration, a catheter with a built-in fiber optic light source was put in antegrade fashion along the "working" guidewire to the area of obliteration. During transurethral inspection of the reservoir, the distal end of the light source was visualized and the reservoir wall was cut "to the light" using electrosurgery (n=2) and a thulium fiber laser (one case). For adequate kidney drainage, two internal stents of 6 Fr were put for a period of 6 months in two patients and for 2 months in another case. RESULTS: All patients had an adequate diameter of the ureteral anastomosis after removal of the stents. In two cases, an adequate passage of the contrast agent through both ureters was maintained for 42 and 37 months after procedure (according to the follow-up computed tomography and excretory urography). One patient had an attack of acute pyelonephritis 2 months after the removal of internal stents due to recurrent stricture. After repeated endoscopic ureteral recanalization with putting of two internal stents for a period of 6 months, no recurrence of the stricture was observed during 28 months of follow-up. CONCLUSION: Endoscopic treatment of both primary and recurrent short ureteral anastomotic obliterations in patients with orthotopic neobladder allows for adequate ureteral patency, provided that two internal stents are left in place for 6 months.

[Bilateral laparoscopic nephrectomy for polycystic kidney disease].

A clinical case of surgical treatment of a patient with autosomal dominant type of polycystic kidney disease, stage 5 of chronic kidney disease and secondary arterial hypertension is presented in the article. The technique of single-stage bilateral laparoscopic nephrectomy, patented by the authors, is described. The practicability and safety of a simultaneous bilateral procedures was demonstrated, as well as the advantage of laparoscopic access for this type of surgical interventions. The successful and prompt procedure allowed the patient to undergone to allotransplantation of a cadaveric kidney as soon as possible.

[Use of urethral stents for urethral strictures].

Urethral stents have been popular in urology since the early 1980s and are used in the treatment of urethral stricture. The literature review presents data on the introduction into urological practice and the use of urethral stents in urethral strictures.

[Endoscopic marsupialization of parapelvic renal cysts].

INTRODUCTION: Parapelvic renal cysts are very common. Indications for surgical treatment are upper urine tract obstruction, pain and recurrent gross hematuria. AIM: To analyze the efficiency and safety of endoscopic transurethral and percutaneous laser marsupialization of parapelvic renal cysts. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 9 patients were undergone to transurethral intrarenal marsupialization of parapelvic renal cysts from March 2016 to February 2021 (4 men, 5 women, aged 42-78 years). Another 2 patients (2 men, aged 46 and 52 years) were treated by percutaneous approach. The average size of the cyst according to contrast-enhanced multi-slice computed tomography (MSCT) was 3.1+/-1.8 cm. In two cases, papillary tumor of the pelvis was suspected. The anteroposterior diameter of the pelvis was 2.6+/-1.3 cm; 9 patients had pain in the loin area, while in 7 patients recurrent gross hematuria was also an indication for surgical treatment. For marsupialization, a holmium (Ho:YAG) laser Auriga XL (Boston Scientific, USA) was used in 4 patients, and in other cases (n=7) a procedure was performed using a thulium fiber laser (Tm Fiber) Fiberlase U1 (IRE-Polus, Russia). In 3 patients, to clarify the site of incision of the cyst, intraoperative ultrasound was used. In all cases, after draining the cyst, an internal stent was placed inside the cyst for a period of 4-6 weeks. RESULTS: The duration of transurethral surgery was 26+/-11 minutes, while percutaneous marsupialization of the cyst, which was performed in combination with percutaneous nephrolithotomy, took 10 and 18 minutes, respectively. The average catheterization time was 12+/-8 hours. Nephrostomy tube was removed on the 2nd day. The length of stay was 4+/-2 days. Febrile fever was noted in 1 patient (9%), which required a change in antibiotic therapy. During ultrasound control at discharge, the dilatation of the collecting system was not detected in any cases, while the residual cavity was found in 2 patients (18%). Follow-up contrast-enhanced MSCT and ultrasound within 3-30 months in all patients (n=11) showed no dilatation of the collecting system. In 1 (9%) patient, the residual cavity was preserved with a decrease in size to 1.2 cm without signs of upper urinary tract obstruction; the initial diameter of the cyst in this patient was 4.9 cm. There was no recurrence of gross hematuria. CONCLUSIONS: In our opinion, transurethral and percutaneous laser marsupialization of parapelvic renal cysts is an effective and safe method that allows definitive treatment for cysts up to 4 cm in size. If the cyst is larger than 4 cm, endoscopic removal should be balanced with the possibility of preserving the residual cavity. The most common complication of endoscopic treatment of intrarenal cysts is acute pyelonephritis with a rate of 9%.

[Modern endourological technologies new opportunities in the treatment of patients with urinary tract anomalies and in complex clinical cases].

The clinical examples of the use of modern endoscopic minimally invasive technologies in patients with urinary tract anomalies and in complex clinical cases are presented in the article. The techniques and features of percutaneous nephrolithotomy, retrograde intrarenal surgery (RIRS), antegrade ureteroscopy using f lexible scope in this category of patients are discussed. The paper confirms the efficiency and necessity of further development of endourological methods for the treatment of urolithiasis.

[Ureteral obstruction and segmental ureteral stents].

Currently, various types of stents are widely used in urological practice. One of the indications is the presence of upper urinary tract strictures. The factors leading to the development of strictures can be endogenous and exogenous, iatrogenic and non-iatrogenic, benign and malignant. After open, laparoscopic and X-ray-endoscopic procedures a double-J stent is usually placed or, less often, nephrostomy tube. It should be noted that both methods have certain side effects and may affect the patient's quality of life. To reduce the stent-related symptoms and increase their tolerability, various modifications of ureteral stents have been developed. In this article, we analyze the publications devoted to the most commonly used segmental stents without renal and bladder coils, such as Memokath, Uventa, Allium, Memotherm and nitinol stents manufactured by MIT LLC.

[Prostate cysts].

The classification of prostate cysts, a description of the typical clinical features and current treatment methods are presented in the article, based on modern literature data.

[Comparative analysis of clinical features of robotic-assisted and laparoscopic partial nephrectomy].

INTRODUCTION: Kidney cancer (mostly renal cell carcinoma) is one of the ten most commonly diagnosed malignant tumors among men and women. Due to the widespread use of computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, the proportion of early-stage kidney cancers has increased. Currently, treatment options for stage 1 kidney cancer are radical nephrectomy, partial nephrectomy, and active surveillance. Among organ-preserving intervention, three main techniques can be distinguished: open surgery, minimally invasive surgery and ablation methods. To date, robotic-assisted procedures have occupied their place among minimally invasive interventions. AIM: To carry out a comparative analysis of two methods of organ-preserving treatment of kidney tumors, namely robot-assisted and laparoscopic partial nephrectomy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective comparative analysis of two groups of patients with kidney tumors who underwent robotic-assisted or laparoscopic partial nephrectomy during the period from 2012 to 2019 was performed. RESULTS: There were no differences between two groups in age, mean score on the RENAL nephrometry scale, preoperative creatinine levels, tumor size, and duration of warm ischemia. However, duration of surgery, the volume of blood loss, serum creatinine after surgery, the length of stay, the use of the technique of early unclamping of the renal artery, the use of technique "off-clamp" and the proportion of exophytic tumors with growth were significantly different between patients of two groups. CONCLUSION: We believe that the robotic system is intuitively convenient for performing partial nephrectomy, allowing the treatment of potentially more complex cases and expanding the indications for organ-preserving procedures.

[New approaches to combined therapy of irritative symptoms in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia].

INTRODUCTION: Daytime and nighttime urinary frequency is a common complaint in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). The most common reason for seeking elective surgery is an ineffective treatment with alpha-blockers. The aim of the study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of combination therapy with tamsulosin 0.4 mg and mirabegron 50 mg in patients with BPH and predominant irritative symptoms. MATERIALS AND METHODS: from January 2018 to December 2019 in the outpatient department of the city clinical hospital named after D.D. Pletnev, a total of 64 patients with BPH with complains of frequent nighttime and daytime frequency and a desire to undergo surgery were followed. The patients underwent a comprehensive clinical and laboratory examination, according to which 10 patients had indications for surgery, and they were excluded from the study. In 6 patients, the prevalence of nocturnal over daytime diuresis was revealed and they were also excluded. Combination therapy with tamsulosin 0.4 mg and mirabegron 50 mg a day was prescribed to 48 patients. The average duration of therapy was 15.4 +/- 3.1 months. Patients underwent a follow-up examination to evaluate the efficiency and safety after 3, 6 and 12 months of therapy. Adverse events, possibly treatment-related, were recorded. RESULTS: there was an additional decrease in irritative complaints according to the I-PSS, namely 2 points after 3 months and 4 points after 6 and 12 months. In addition, a decrease in the number of nocturnal urinations by one, a decrease in daytime urination by one after 3 months and by two after 6 and 12 months, as well as an increase in the average voided volume from 150 +/- 33 to 240 +/- 40 ml after 12 months of therapy was seen. The change in other parameters was not significant. Two patients stopped taking the drug due to non-medical reasons. In other 2 patients, the development of sinus tachycardia and a transient increase in blood pressure were noted, which did not require discontinuation of the drug. CONCLUSIONS: Combination therapy with tamsulosin 0.4 mg and mirabegron 50 mg reduces the frequency of daytime and night urination with the maximum effect after 6-12 months, improves the quality of life and has a good safety profile.

[Paradigm shift in combination therapy during the COVID-19 pandemic].

INTRODUCTION: Insufficient efficiency of combination therapy with -adrenergic blockers and 5-reductase inhibitors with subsequent proceeding to surgical treatment in the absence of absolute indications is a prerequisite for poor postoperative results. AIM: to evaluate the efficiency of changing standard combination therapy to -adrenergic blockers + m-cholinoblockers instead of proceeding to surgical treatment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From January 2019 to December 2019, a total of 137 patients with lower urinary treatment were referred to the Pletnev City Clinical Hospital due to limited efficiency of combination therapy with -adrenergic blockers and 5-reductase inhibitors in order to undergone laser enucleation/vaporization of the prostate. After evaluation, 41 patients with absolute indications for surgical treatment or with suspected prostate cancer were excluded. After a comprehensive examination, 96 patients were prescribed tamsulosin 0.4 mg daily in combination with solifenacin 10 mg daily. All patients were followed up for 12 months. RESULTS: As a result of using solifenacin, better control over storage symptoms was achieved according to the I-PSS scale (-4 points), which also led to a significant decrease in the total I-PSS score after 12 months of therapy. There was an increase in the mean voided volume (by 53%) after 6 months. Neither Qmax, nor residual urine volume did not change significantly. According to the MIEF-5 scale, an improvement in erectile function was revealed. There was a slight decrease in the average prostate volume and an increase in the PSA level from 3.1 to 4.1 ng/ml. There was no acute urinary retention. However, 6 patients discontinued taking of m-cholinoblockers due to dry mouth. CONCLUSIONS: If there are no absolute indications for surgical treatment, changing the combination of -adrenergic blockers + 5-Reductase inhibitors to a combination of -adrenergic blockers + m-cholinoblockers results in a pronounced symptomatic improvement due to alleviation of storage symptoms.

[The use of alfuzosin in the treatment of patients with acute urinary retention].

AIM: To study the efficiency of using alfuzosin 10 mg (Alfuprost MR, SUN Pharma) in routine clinical practice in order to predict its feasibility for treating acute urinary retention. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 47 patients, aged from 54 to 88 years old (mean 68.5+/-5.6) with acute urinary retention due to benign prostatic hyperplasia were treated at the urology department of City clinical hospital named after D.D. Pletnev from September to December 2019. 14 patients were excluded from the study since they had chronic urinary retention. In all cases, urethral catheter was put and left in place for 24-72 hours (mean 44+/-12). All 33 patients were prescribed alfuzosin 10 mg. After removal of the urethral catheter, spontaneous voiding was restored in 19 patients. Transurethral resection of the prostate was consequently performed in three patients. In one patient, the urethral catheter was changed to cystostomy tube due to the urethritis. Recurrent urinary retention occurred in 10 men, and 8 patients underwent cystostomy. In other two cases, spontaneous voiding was restored after repeated removal of the urethral catheter. RESULTS: the efficiency of conservative therapy was 63.6% (21/33). According to our results, history of severe lower urinary tract symptoms, the prostate volume more than 50 cc and intravesical protrusion of more than 1 cm have a significant influence on the outcome of conservative therapy in patients with acute urinary retention. CONCLUSIONS: Based on a prospective study, a high efficiency and safety of the Alfuprost MP 10 mg/day in patients with acute urinary retention was established.

[Complete penile rehabilitation of a patient with microphallia after correction of bladder exstrophy].

Bladder exstrophy is a complex of urogenital malformations, varying in severity from epispadias to classical bladder exstrophy. The main aim of correcting bladder exstrophy in childhood is to achieve urine continence with the prevention of upper urinary tract disorders and to provide penile reconstruction. However, by the time of puberty, it is not always possible to achieve optimal anatomical features of the penis, and usually, by the end of puberty, the penile length is no more than 7 cm, which subsequently leads to psychosocial and sexual problems during puberty. Neither patient, nor urologist in most cases do not satisfy final result of the treatment of exstrophy and a number of epispadias forms. A clinical case of the surgical rehabilitation of a patient after undergoing multi-stage surgical treatment for a congenital malformation of the genitourinary system is presented in the article. MATERIALS AND METHODS: At the admission, the size of the penis was 3 cm (microfallia), urethral meatus was located in the area of the penoscrotal junction. From 2016 to 2019, the patient underwent neofallos formation, urethroplasty, and implantation of prostheses in the neophallos. RESULTS: According to the results, urinary and sexual function was completely restored, as well as anatomical relationships and dimensional parameters of the genitals.

[Minimally invasive methods of treatment of interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome].

Interstitial Cystitis (IC) or Painful Bladder Syndrome (PBS) is a heterogeneous disease which pathogenetic mode development is not fully studied. In the presented literature review IC/PBS is considered as urothelial dysfunction. The main issues discussed relate to IC/PBS diagnosis and minimally invasive methods of its treatment including intravesical instillations of therapeutic agents, botulinum toxin injections into bladder wall and hydrodistension. Efficacy of the above therapeutic methods is far from the desired what gives rise to search novel minimally invasive technologies and protocols to improve the outcomes of traditional treatment methods.

[Complications after PCNL: diagnosis and management].

Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) is the gold standard treatment of large and staghorn kidney stones. Despite technological progress and improvement of PCNL technique, this procedure is associated with complications and in some cases remain a challenge for endourologists. According to the time, complications can be divided into intra- and postoperative. Intraoperative complications include bleeding, injury of the renal collecting system, visceral organs, pulmonary complications, thromboembolic disorders, extrarenal migration of the stone fragments and incorrect nephrostomy tube placement. Postoperative complications include infection and sepsis, bleeding, persistent urinary fistula, infundibular stenosis and death of the patient. The different recommendations that might be useful for the timely diagnosis of various complications in patients undergoing PCNL are provided in the review. Additionally, information on treatment algorithms is included.