Asset tracking, condition visibility and sustainability using unmanned aerial systems in global logistics.

The scale and scope of global logistics systems make real-time visibility of individual assets in global logistics systems difficult. Aggregating global logistics data to a manageable level where interruptions and disruptions can be anticipated or resolved is high on the wish list of global logistics managers and decision makers. Asset tracking and condition visibility in global supply chains is also difficult because few standards or metrics have been assessed in a supply chain, particularly when new technology is introduced, such as unmanned aerial systems in global supply chains. In this paper, we describe the integration of an unmanned aerial system in a global logistics system, and the metrics used to assess the integrated system. We highlight the importance of supply chain process, business impact, societal and environmental sustainability metrics, in addition to economic and supply chain performance metrics, in evaluating the integrated system.

Modified toolbox for optogenetics in the nonhuman primate.

Attracted by the appealing advantages of optogenetics, many nonhuman primate labs are attempting to incorporate this technique in their experiments. Despite some reported successes by a few groups, many still find it difficult to develop a reliable way to transduce cells in the monkey brain and subsequently monitor light-induced neuronal activity. Here, we describe a methodology that we have developed and successfully deployed on a regular basis with multiple monkeys. All devices and accessories are easy to obtain and results using these have been proven to be highly replicable. We developed the "in-chair" viral injection system and used tapered and thinner fibers for optical stimulation, which significantly improved the efficacy and reduced tissue damage. With these methods, we have successfully transduced cells in multiple monkeys in both deep and shallow cortical areas. We could reliably obtain neural modulation for months after injection, and no light-induced artifacts were observed during recordings. Further experiments using these methods have shown that optogenetic stimulation can be used to bias spatial attention in a visual choice discrimination task in a way comparable to electrical microstimulation, which demonstrates the potential use of our methods in both fundamental research and clinical applications.

Optogenetically induced spatiotemporal gamma oscillations and neuronal spiking activity in primate motor cortex.

Transient gamma-band (40-80 Hz) spatiotemporal patterns are hypothesized to play important roles in cortical function. Here we report the direct observation of gamma oscillations as spatiotemporal waves induced by targeted optogenetic stimulation, recorded by intracortical multichannel extracellular techniques in macaque monkeys during their awake resting states. Microelectrode arrays integrating an optical fiber at their center were chronically implanted in primary motor (M1) and ventral premotor (PMv) cortices of two subjects. Targeted brain tissue was transduced with the red-shifted opsin C1V1(T/T). Constant (1-s square pulses) and ramp stimulation induced narrowband gamma oscillations during awake resting states. Recordings across 95 microelectrodes (4 × 4-mm array) enabled us to track the transient gamma spatiotemporal patterns manifested, e.g., as concentric expanding and spiral waves. Gamma oscillations were induced well beyond the light stimulation volume, via network interactions at distal electrode sites, depending on optical power. Despite stimulation-related modulation in spiking rates, neuronal spiking remained highly asynchronous during induced gamma oscillations. In one subject we examined stimulation effects during preparation and execution of a motor task and observed that movement execution largely attenuated optically induced gamma oscillations. Our findings demonstrate that, beyond previously reported induced gamma activity under periodic drive, a prolonged constant stimulus above a certain threshold may carry primate motor cortex network dynamics into gamma oscillations, likely via a Hopf bifurcation. More broadly, the experimental capability in combining microelectrode array recordings and optogenetic stimulation provides an important approach for probing spatiotemporal dynamics in primate cortical networks during various physiological and behavioral conditions.

Detection of optogenetic stimulation in somatosensory cortex by non-human primates--towards artificial tactile sensation.

Neuroprosthesis research aims to enable communication between the brain and external assistive devices while restoring lost functionality such as occurs from stroke, spinal cord injury or neurodegenerative diseases. In future closed-loop sensorimotor prostheses, one approach is to use neuromodulation as direct stimulus to the brain to compensate for a lost sensory function and help the brain to integrate relevant information for commanding external devices via, e.g. movement intention. Current neuromodulation techniques rely mainly of electrical stimulation. Here we focus specifically on the question of eliciting a biomimetically relevant sense of touch by direct stimulus of the somatosensory cortex by introducing optogenetic techniques as an alternative to electrical stimulation. We demonstrate that light activated opsins can be introduced to target neurons in the somatosensory cortex of non-human primates and be optically activated to create a reliably detected sensation which the animal learns to interpret as a tactile sensation localized within the hand. The accomplishment highlighted here shows how optical stimulation of a relatively small group of mostly excitatory somatosensory neurons in the nonhuman primate brain is sufficient for eliciting a useful sensation from data acquired by simultaneous electrophysiology and from behavioral metrics. In this first report to date on optically neuromodulated behavior in the somatosensory cortex of nonhuman primates we do not yet dissect the details of the sensation the animals exerience or contrast it to those evoked by electrical stimulation, issues of considerable future interest.

A coaxial optrode as multifunction write-read probe for optogenetic studies in non-human primates.

BACKGROUND: Advances in optogenetics have led to first reports of expression of light-gated ion-channels in non-human primates (NHPs). However, a major obstacle preventing effective application of optogenetics in NHPs and translation to optogenetic therapeutics is the absence of compatible multifunction optoelectronic probes for (1) precision light delivery, (2) low-interference electrophysiology, (3) protein fluorescence detection, and (4) repeated insertion with minimal brain trauma. NEW METHOD: Here we describe a novel brain probe device, a "coaxial optrode", designed to minimize brain tissue damage while microfabricated to perform simultaneous electrophysiology, light delivery and fluorescence measurements in the NHP brain. The device consists of a tapered, gold-coated optical fiber inserted in a polyamide tube. A portion of the gold coating is exposed at the fiber tip to allow electrophysiological recordings in addition to light delivery/collection at the tip. RESULTS: Coaxial optrode performance was demonstrated by experiments in rodents and NHPs, and characterized by computational models. The device mapped opsin expression in the brain and achieved precisely targeted optical stimulation and electrophysiology with minimal cortical damage. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: Overall, combined electrical, optical and mechanical features of the coaxial optrode allowed a performance for NHP studies which was not possible with previously existing devices. CONCLUSIONS: Coaxial optrode is currently being used in two NHP laboratories as a major tool to study brain function by inducing light modulated neural activity and behavior. By virtue of its design, the coaxial optrode can be extended for use as a chronic implant and multisite neural stimulation/recording.