Structure and assembly of a bacterial gasdermin pore.

In response to pathogen infection, gasdermin (GSDM) proteins form membrane pores that induce a host cell death process called pyroptosis1-3. Studies of human and mouse GSDM pores have revealed the functions and architectures of assemblies comprising 24 to 33 protomers4-9, but the mechanism and evolutionary origin of membrane targeting and GSDM pore formation remain unknown. Here we determine a structure of a bacterial GSDM (bGSDM) pore and define a conserved mechanism of pore assembly. Engineering a panel of bGSDMs for site-specific proteolytic activation, we demonstrate that diverse bGSDMs form distinct pore sizes that range from smaller mammalian-like assemblies to exceptionally large pores containing more than 50 protomers. We determine a cryo-electron microscopy structure of a Vitiosangium bGSDM in an active 'slinky'-like oligomeric conformation and analyse bGSDM pores in a native lipid environment to create an atomic-level model of a full 52-mer bGSDM pore. Combining our structural analysis with molecular dynamics simulations and cellular assays, our results support a stepwise model of GSDM pore assembly and suggest that a covalently bound palmitoyl can leave a hydrophobic sheath and insert into the membrane before formation of the membrane-spanning ß-strand regions. These results reveal the diversity of GSDM pores found in nature and explain the function of an ancient post-translational modification in enabling programmed host cell death.

Structural basis of Gabija anti-phage defence and viral immune evasion.

Bacteria encode hundreds of diverse defence systems that protect them from viral infection and inhibit phage propagation1-5. Gabija is one of the most prevalent anti-phage defence systems, occurring in more than 15% of all sequenced bacterial and archaeal genomes1,6,7, but the molecular basis of how Gabija defends cells from viral infection remains poorly understood. Here we use X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) to define how Gabija proteins assemble into a supramolecular complex of around 500 kDa that degrades phage DNA. Gabija protein A (GajA) is a DNA endonuclease that tetramerizes to form the core of the anti-phage defence complex. Two sets of Gabija protein B (GajB) dimers dock at opposite sides of the complex and create a 4:4 GajA-GajB assembly (hereafter, GajAB) that is essential for phage resistance in vivo. We show that a phage-encoded protein, Gabija anti-defence 1 (Gad1), directly binds to the Gabija GajAB complex and inactivates defence. A cryo-EM structure of the virally inhibited state shows that Gad1 forms an octameric web that encases the GajAB complex and inhibits DNA recognition and cleavage. Our results reveal the structural basis of assembly of the Gabija anti-phage defence complex and define a unique mechanism of viral immune evasion.

Structural and functional characteristics of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariant BA.2 spike protein.

The Omicron subvariant BA.2 has become the dominant circulating strain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in many countries. Here, we have characterized structural, functional and antigenic properties of the full-length BA.2 spike (S) protein and compared replication of the authentic virus in cell culture and an animal model with previously prevalent variants. BA.2 S can fuse membranes slightly more efficiently than Omicron BA.1, but still less efficiently than other previous variants. Both BA.1 and BA.2 viruses replicated substantially faster in animal lungs than the early G614 (B.1) strain in the absence of pre-existing immunity, possibly explaining the increased transmissibility despite their functionally compromised spikes. As in BA.1, mutations in the BA.2 S remodel its antigenic surfaces, leading to strong resistance to neutralizing antibodies. These results suggest that both immune evasion and replicative advantage may contribute to the heightened transmissibility of the Omicron subvariants.

Cryo-EM structure of SARS-CoV-2 postfusion spike in membrane.

The entry of SARS-CoV-2 into host cells depends on the refolding of the virus-encoded spike protein from a prefusion conformation, which is metastable after cleavage, to a lower-energy stable postfusion conformation1,2. This transition overcomes kinetic barriers for fusion of viral and target cell membranes3,4. Here we report a cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the intact postfusion spike in a lipid bilayer that represents the single-membrane product of the fusion reaction. The structure provides structural definition of the functionally critical membrane-interacting segments, including the fusion peptide and transmembrane anchor. The internal fusion peptide forms a hairpin-like wedge that spans almost the entire lipid bilayer and the transmembrane segment wraps around the fusion peptide at the last stage of membrane fusion. These results advance our understanding of the spike protein in a membrane environment and may guide development of intervention strategies.

Structure and assembly of a bacterial gasdermin pore.

In response to pathogen infection, gasdermin (GSDM) proteins form membrane pores that induce a host cell death process called pyroptosis1-33. Studies of human and mouse GSDM pores reveal the functions and architectures of 24-33 protomers assemblies4-9, but the mechanism and evolutionary origin of membrane targeting and GSDM pore formation remain unknown. Here we determine a structure of a bacterial GSDM (bGSDM) pore and define a conserved mechanism of pore assembly. Engineering a panel of bGSDMs for site-specific proteolytic activation, we demonstrate that diverse bGSDMs form distinct pore sizes that range from smaller mammalian-like assemblies to exceptionally large pores containing >50 protomers. We determine a 3.3 Å cryo-EM structure of a Vitiosangium bGSDM in an active slinky-like oligomeric conformation and analyze bGSDM pores in a native lipid environment to create an atomic-level model of a full 52-mer bGSDM pore. Combining our structural analysis with molecular dynamics simulations and cellular assays, our results support a stepwise model of GSDM pore assembly and suggest that a covalently bound palmitoyl can leave a hydrophobic sheath and insert into the membrane before formation of the membrane-spanning ß-strand regions. These results reveal the diversity of GSDM pores found in nature and explain the function of an ancient post-translational modification in enabling programmed host cell death.

Cryo-EM structure of the RADAR supramolecular anti-phage defense complex.

RADAR is a two-protein bacterial defense system that was reported to defend against phage by "editing" messenger RNA. Here, we determine cryo-EM structures of the RADAR defense complex, revealing RdrA as a heptameric, two-layered AAA+ ATPase and RdrB as a dodecameric, hollow complex with twelve surface-exposed deaminase active sites. RdrA and RdrB join to form a giant assembly up to 10 MDa, with RdrA docked as a funnel over the RdrB active site. Surprisingly, our structures reveal an RdrB active site that targets mononucleotides. We show that RdrB catalyzes ATP-to-ITP conversion in vitro and induces the massive accumulation of inosine mononucleotides during phage infection in vivo, limiting phage replication. Our results define ATP mononucleotide deamination as a determinant of RADAR immunity and reveal supramolecular assembly of a nucleotide-modifying machine as a mechanism of anti-phage defense.

Cryo-EM structure of SARS-CoV-2 postfusion spike in membrane.

Entry of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) into host cells depends on refolding of the virus-encoded spike protein from a prefusion conformation, metastable after cleavage, to a lower energy, stable postfusion conformation. This transition overcomes kinetic barriers for fusion of viral and target cell membranes. We report here a cryo-EM structure of the intact postfusion spike in a lipid bilayer that represents single-membrane product of the fusion reaction. The structure provides structural definition of the functionally critical membraneinteracting segments, including the fusion peptide and transmembrane anchor. The internal fusion peptide forms a hairpin-like wedge that spans almost the entire lipid bilayer and the transmembrane segment wraps around the fusion peptide at the last stage of membrane fusion. These results advance our understanding of the spike protein in a membrane environment and may guide development of intervention strategies.

Practices for running a research-oriented shared cryo-EM facility.

The Harvard Cryo-Electron Microscopy Center for Structural Biology, which was formed as a consortium between Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, and Massachusetts General Hospital, serves both academic and commercial users in the greater Harvard community. The facility strives to optimize research productivity while training users to become expert electron microscopists. These two tasks may be at odds and require careful balance to keep research projects moving forward while still allowing trainees to develop independence and expertise. This article presents the model developed at Harvard Medical School for running a research-oriented cryo-EM facility. Being a research-oriented facility begins with training in cryo-sample preparation on a trainee's own sample, ideally producing grids that can be screened and optimized on the Talos Arctica via multiple established pipelines. The first option, staff assisted screening, requires no user experience and a staff member provides instant feedback about the suitability of the sample for cryo-EM investigation and discusses potential strategies for sample optimization. Another option, rapid access, allows users short sessions to screen samples and introductory training for basic microscope operation. Once a sample reaches the stage where data collection is warranted, new users are trained on setting up data collection for themselves on either the Talos Arctica or Titan Krios microscope until independence is established. By providing incremental training and screening pipelines, the bottleneck of sample preparation can be overcome in parallel with developing skills as an electron microscopist. This approach allows for the development of expertise without hindering breakthroughs in key research areas.

Structural and functional characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariant BA.2 spike.

The Omicron subvariant BA.2 has become the dominant circulating strain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in many countries. We have characterized structural, functional and antigenic properties of the full-length BA.2 spike (S) protein and compared replication of the authentic virus in cell culture and animal model with previously prevalent variants. BA.2 S can fuse membranes more efficiently than Omicron BA.1, mainly due to lack of a BA.1-specific mutation that may retard the receptor engagement, but still less efficiently than other variants. Both BA.1 and BA.2 viruses replicated substantially faster in animal lungs than the early G614 (B.1) strain in the absence of pre-existing immunity, possibly explaining the increased transmissibility despite their functionally compromised spikes. As in BA.1, mutations in the BA.2 S remodel its antigenic surfaces leading to strong resistance to neutralizing antibodies. These results suggest that both immune evasion and replicative advantage may contribute to the heightened transmissibility for the Omicron subvariants.

Structural and functional impact by SARS-CoV-2 Omicron spike mutations.

The Omicron variant of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), bearing an unusually high number of mutations, has become a dominant strain in many countries within several weeks. We report here structural, functional, and antigenic properties of its full-length spike (S) protein with a native sequence in comparison with those of previously prevalent variants. Omicron S requires a substantially higher level of host receptor ACE2 for efficient membrane fusion than other variants, possibly explaining its unexpected cellular tropism. Mutations not only remodel the antigenic structure of the N-terminal domain of the S protein but also alter the surface of the receptor-binding domain in a way not seen in other variants, consistent with its remarkable resistance to neutralizing antibodies. These results suggest that Omicron S has acquired an extraordinary ability to evade host immunity by excessive mutations, which also compromise its fusogenic capability.

Bacterial gasdermins reveal an ancient mechanism of cell death.

Gasdermin proteins form large membrane pores in human cells that release immune cytokines and induce lytic cell death. Gasdermin pore formation is triggered by caspase-mediated cleavage during inflammasome signaling and is critical for defense against pathogens and cancer. We discovered gasdermin homologs encoded in bacteria that defended against phages and executed cell death. Structures of bacterial gasdermins revealed a conserved pore-forming domain that was stabilized in the inactive state with a buried lipid modification. Bacterial gasdermins were activated by dedicated caspase-like proteases that catalyzed site-specific cleavage and the removal of an inhibitory C-terminal peptide. Release of autoinhibition induced the assembly of large and heterogeneous pores that disrupted membrane integrity. Thus, pyroptosis is an ancient form of regulated cell death shared between bacteria and animals.

Membrane fusion and immune evasion by the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant.

The Delta variant of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has outcompeted previously prevalent variants and become a dominant strain worldwide. We report the structure, function, and antigenicity of its full-length spike (S) trimer as well as those of the Gamma and Kappa variants, and compare their characteristics with the G614, Alpha, and Beta variants. Delta S can fuse membranes more efficiently at low levels of cellular receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), and its pseudotyped viruses infect target cells substantially faster than the other five variants, possibly accounting for its heightened transmissibility. Each variant shows different rearrangement of the antigenic surface of the amino-terminal domain of the S protein but only makes produces changes in the receptor binding domain (RBD), making the RBD a better target for therapeutic antibodies.

Membrane fusion and immune evasion by the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant.

The Delta variant of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has outcompeted previously prevalent variants and become a dominant strain worldwide. We report here structure, function and antigenicity of its full-length spike (S) trimer in comparison with those of other variants, including Gamma, Kappa, and previously characterized Alpha and Beta. Delta S can fuse membranes more efficiently at low levels of cellular receptor ACE2 and its pseudotyped viruses infect target cells substantially faster than all other variants tested, possibly accounting for its heightened transmissibility. Mutations of each variant rearrange the antigenic surface of the N-terminal domain of the S protein in a unique way, but only cause local changes in the receptor-binding domain, consistent with greater resistance particular to neutralizing antibodies. These results advance our molecular understanding of distinct properties of these viruses and may guide intervention strategies.

Small Molecule Microcrystal Electron Diffraction for the Pharmaceutical Industry-Lessons Learned From Examining Over Fifty Samples.

The emerging field of microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) is of great interest to industrial researchers working in the drug discovery and drug development space. The promise of being able to routinely solve high-resolution crystal structures without the need to grow large crystals is very appealing. Despite MicroED's exciting potential, adoption across the pharmaceutical industry has been slow, primarily owing to a lack of access to specialized equipment and expertise. Here we present our experience building a small molecule MicroED service pipeline for members of the pharmaceutical industry. In the past year, we have examined more than fifty small molecule samples submitted by our clients, the majority of which have yielded data suitable for structure solution. We also detail our experience determining small molecule MicroED structures of pharmaceutical interest and offer some insights into the typical experimental outcomes. This experience has led us to conclude that small molecule MicroED adoption will continue to grow within the pharmaceutical industry where it is able to rapidly provide structures inaccessible by other methods.

Mechanisms of activation and desensitization of full-length glycine receptor in lipid nanodiscs.

Glycinergic synapses play a central role in motor control and pain processing in the central nervous system. Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are key players in mediating fast inhibitory neurotransmission at these synapses. While previous high-resolution structures have provided insights into the molecular architecture of GlyR, several mechanistic questions pertaining to channel function are still unanswered. Here, we present Cryo-EM structures of the full-length GlyR protein complex reconstituted into lipid nanodiscs that are captured in the unliganded (closed), glycine-bound (open and desensitized), and allosteric modulator-bound conformations. A comparison of these states reveals global conformational changes underlying GlyR channel gating and modulation. The functional state assignments were validated by molecular dynamics simulations, and the observed permeation events are in agreement with the anion selectivity and conductance of GlyR. These studies provide the structural basis for gating, ion selectivity, and single-channel conductance properties of GlyR in a lipid environment.

Molecular mechanism of setron-mediated inhibition of full-length 5-HT3A receptor.

Serotonin receptor (5-HT3AR) is the most common therapeutic target to manage the nausea and vomiting during cancer therapies and in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Setrons, a class of competitive antagonists, cause functional inhibition of 5-HT3AR in the gastrointestinal tract and brainstem, acting as effective anti-emetic agents. Despite their prevalent use, the molecular mechanisms underlying setron binding and inhibition of 5-HT3AR are not fully understood. Here, we present the structure of granisetron-bound full-length 5-HT3AR solved by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy to 2.92 Å resolution. The reconstruction reveals the orientation of granisetron in the orthosteric site with unambiguous density for interacting sidechains. Molecular dynamics simulations and electrophysiology confirm the granisetron binding orientation and the residues central for ligand recognition. Comparison of granisetron-bound 5-HT3AR with the apo and serotonin-bound structures, reveals key insights into the mechanism underlying 5-HT3AR inhibition.

Convenient synthesis of phosphonohydrazines from arylamines.

Phosphonohydrazines were prepared in good yield from corresponding arylamines by a one-pot reaction through diazotization with an organic nitrite and treatment with a trialkyl phosphite. The trialkyl phosphite is postulated to function as a nucleophile as well as a reducing agent.