Targeted Inhibition of DNA-PKcs, ATM, ATR, PARP, and Rad51 Modulate Response to X Rays and Protons.

Small molecule inhibitors are currently in preclinical and clinical development for the treatment of selected cancers, particularly those with existing genetic alterations in DNA repair and DNA damage response (DDR) pathways. Keen interest has also been expressed in combining such agents with other targeted antitumor strategies such as radiotherapy. Radiotherapy exerts its cytotoxic effects primarily through DNA damage-induced cell death; therefore, inhibiting DNA repair and the DDR should lead to additive and/or synergistic radiosensitizing effects. In this study we screened the response to X-ray or proton radiation in cell lines treated with DDR inhibitors (DDRis) targeting ATM, ATR, DNA-PKcs, Rad51, and PARP, with survival metrics established using clonogenic assays. We observed that DDRis generate significant radiosensitization in cancer and primary cells derived from normal tissue. Existing genetic defects in cancer cells appear to be an important consideration when determining the optimal inhibitor to use for synergistic combination with radiation. We also show that while greater radiosensitization can be achieved with protons (9.9 keV/µm) combined with DDRis, the relative biological effectiveness is unchanged or in some cases reduced. Our results indicate that while targeting the DDR can significantly radiosensitize cancer cells to such combinations, normal cells may also be equally or more severely affected, depending on the DDRi used. These data highlight the importance of identifying genetic defects as predictive biomarkers of response for combination treatment.

Cell lines of the same anatomic site and histologic type show large variability in intrinsic radiosensitivity and relative biological effectiveness to protons and carbon ions.

PURPOSE: To show that intrinsic radiosensitivity varies greatly for protons and carbon (C) ions in addition to photons, and that DNA repair capacity remains important in governing this variability. METHODS: We measured or obtained from the literature clonogenic survival data for a number of human cancer cell lines exposed to photons, protons (9.9 keV/µm), and C-ions (13.3-77.1 keV/µm). We characterized their intrinsic radiosensitivity by the dose for 10% or 50% survival (D10% or D50% ), and quantified the variability at each radiation quality by the coefficient of variation (COV) in D10% and D50% . We also treated cells with DNA repair inhibitors prior to irradiation to assess how DNA repair capacity affects their variability. RESULTS: We found no statistically significant differences in the COVs of D10% or D50% between any of the radiation qualities investigated. The same was true regardless of whether the cells were treated with DNA repair inhibitors, or whether they were stratified into histologic subsets. Even within histologic subsets, we found remarkable differences in radiosensitivity for high LET C-ions that were often greater than the variations in RBE, with brain cancer cells varying in D10% (D50% ) up to 100% (131%) for 77.1 keV/µm C-ions, and non-small cell lung cancer and pancreatic cancer cell lines varying up to 55% (76%) and 51% (78%), respectively, for 60.5 keV/µm C-ions. The cell lines with modulated DNA repair capacity had greater variability in intrinsic radiosensitivity across all radiation qualities. CONCLUSIONS: Even for cell lines of the same histologic type, there are remarkable variations in intrinsic radiosensitivity, and these variations do not differ significantly between photon, proton or C-ion radiation. The importance of DNA repair capacity in governing the variability in intrinsic radiosensitivity is not significantly diminished for higher LET radiation.

Isolation of time-dependent DNA damage induced by energetic carbon ions and their fragments using fluorescent nuclear track detectors.

PURPOSE: High energetic carbon (C-) ion beams undergo nuclear interactions with tissue, producing secondary nuclear fragments. Thus, at depth, C-ion beams are composed of a mixture of different particles with different linear energy transfer (LET) values. We developed a technique to enable isolation of DNA damage response (DDR) in mixed radiation fields using beam line microscopy coupled with fluorescence nuclear track detectors (FNTDs). METHODS: We imaged live cells on a coverslip made of FNTDs right after C-ion, proton or photon irradiation using an in-house built confocal microscope placed in the beam path. We used the FNTD to link track traversals with DNA damage and separated DNA damage induced by primary particles from fragments. RESULTS: We were able to spatially link physical parameters of radiation tracks to DDR in live cells to investigate spatiotemporal DDR in multi-ion radiation fields in real time, which was previously not possible. We demonstrated that the response of lesions produced by the high-LET primary particles associates most strongly with cell death in a multi-LET radiation field, and that this association is not seen when analyzing radiation induced foci in aggregate without primary/fragment classification. CONCLUSIONS: We report a new method that uses confocal microscopy in combination with FNTDs to provide submicrometer spatial-resolution measurements of radiation tracks in live cells. Our method facilitates expansion of the radiation-induced DDR research because it can be used in any particle beam line including particle therapy beam lines. CATEGORY: Biological Physics and Response Prediction.

Nonhomologous End Joining Is More Important Than Proton Linear Energy Transfer in Dictating Cell Death.

PURPOSE: This study seeks to identify biological factors that may yield a therapeutic advantage of proton therapy versus photon therapy. Specifically, we address the role of nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR) in the survival of cells in response to clinical photon and proton beams. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We irradiated HT1080, M059K (DNA-PKcs+/+), and HCC1937 human cancer cell lines and their isogenic counterparts HT1080-shDNA-PKcs, HT1080-shRAD51IND, M059J (DNA-PKcs-/-), and HCC1937-BRCA1 (BRCA1 complemented) to assess cell clonogenic survival and γ-H2AX radiation-induced foci. Cells were irradiated with either clinically relevant photons or 1 of 3 proton linear energy transfer (LET) values. RESULTS: Our results indicate that NHEJ deficiency is more important in dictating cell survival than proton LET. Cells with disrupted HR through BRCA1 mutation showed increased radiosensitivity only for high-LET protons whereas RAD51 depletion showed increased radiosensitivity for both photons and protons. DNA double strand breaks, assessed by γ-H2AX radiation-induced foci, showed greater numbers after 24 hours in cells exposed to higher LET protons. We also observed that NHEJ-deficient cells were unable to repair the vast majority of double strand breaks after 24 hours. CONCLUSIONS: BRCA1 mutation significantly sensitizes cells to protons, but not photons. Loss of NHEJ renders cells hypersensitive to radiation, whereas the relative importance of HR increases with LET across several cell lines. This may be attributable to the more clustered damage induced by higher LET protons, which are harder to repair through NHEJ. This highlights the importance of tumor biology in dictating treatment modality and suggests BRCA1 as a potential biomarker for proton therapy response. Our data also support the use of pharmacologic inhibitors of DNA repair to enhance the sensitivity to different radiation types, although this raises issues for normal tissue toxicity.

Time-Lapse Monitoring of DNA Damage Colocalized With Particle Tracks in Single Living Cells.

PURPOSE: Understanding the DNA damage and repair induced by hadron therapy (HT) beams is crucial for developing novel strategies to maximize the use of HT beams to treat cancer patients. However, spatiotemporal studies of DNA damage and repair for beam energies relevant to HT have been challenging. We report a technique that enables spatiotemporal measurement of radiation-induced damage in live cells and colocalization of this damage with charged particle tracks over a broad range of clinically relevant beam energies. The technique uses novel fluorescence nuclear track detectors with fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscopy in the beam line to visualize particle track traversals within the subcellular compartments of live cells within seconds after injury. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We designed and built a portable fluorescence confocal laser scanning microscope for use in the beam path, coated fluorescence nuclear track detectors with fluorescent-tagged live cells (HT1080 expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein tagged to XRCC1, a single-strand break repair protein), placed the entire assembly into a proton therapy beam line, and irradiated the cells with a fluence of ∼1 × 10(6) protons/cm(2). RESULTS: We successfully obtained confocal images of proton tracks and foci of DNA single-strand breaks immediately after irradiation. CONCLUSIONS: This technique represents an innovative method for analyzing biological responses in any HT beam line at energies and dose rates relevant to therapy. It allows precise determination of the number of tracks traversing a subcellular compartment and monitoring the cellular damage therein, and has the potential to measure the linear energy transfer of each track from therapeutic beams.

Nanoscale measurements of proton tracks using fluorescent nuclear track detectors.

PURPOSE: The authors describe a method in which fluorescence nuclear track detectors (FNTDs), novel track detectors with nanoscale spatial resolution, are used to determine the linear energy transfer (LET) of individual proton tracks from proton therapy beams by allowing visualization and 3D reconstruction of such tracks. METHODS: FNTDs were exposed to proton therapy beams with nominal energies ranging from 100 to 250 MeV. Proton track images were then recorded by confocal microscopy of the FNTDs. Proton tracks in the FNTD images were fit by using a Gaussian function to extract fluorescence amplitudes. Histograms of fluorescence amplitudes were then compared with LET spectra. RESULTS: The authors successfully used FNTDs to register individual proton tracks from high-energy proton therapy beams, allowing reconstruction of 3D images of proton tracks along with delta rays. The track amplitudes from FNTDs could be used to parameterize LET spectra, allowing the LET of individual proton tracks from therapeutic proton beams to be determined. CONCLUSIONS: FNTDs can be used to directly visualize proton tracks and their delta rays at the nanoscale level. Because the track intensities in the FNTDs correlate with LET, they could be used further to measure LET of individual proton tracks. This method may be useful for measuring nanoscale radiation quantities and for measuring the LET of individual proton tracks in radiation biology experiments.