TNF superfamily members promote hepatitis C virus entry via an NF-κB and myosin light chain kinase dependent pathway.

Preventing virally induced liver disease begins with an understanding of the host factors that define susceptibility to infection. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a global health issue, with an estimated 170 million infected individuals at risk of developing liver disease including fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The liver is the major reservoir supporting HCV replication and this hepatocellular tropism is defined by HCV engagement of cellular entry receptors. Hepatocytes are polarized in vivo and this barrier function limits HCV entry. We previously reported that activated macrophages promote HCV entry into polarized hepatocytes via a TNF-α-dependent process; however, the underlying mechanism was not defined. In this study, we show that several TNF superfamily members, including TNF-α, TNF-ß, TWEAK and LIGHT, promote HCV entry via NF-κB-mediated activation of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) and disruption of tight junctions. These observations support a model where HCV hijacks an inflammatory immune response to stimulate infection and uncovers a role for NF-κB-MLCK signalling in maintaining hepatocellular tight junctions.

Lentiviral hepatitis B pseudotype entry requires sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide and additional hepatocyte-specific factors.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is one of the world's major unconquered infections, resulting in progressive liver disease, and current treatments rarely cure infection. A limitation to discovering new therapies is our limited knowledge of HBV entry and dissemination pathways that hinders the development of in vitro culture systems. To address this gap in our understanding we optimized the genesis of infectious lentiviral pseudoparticles (HBVpps). The recent discovery that the bile salt transporter sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide (NTCP) acts as a receptor for HBV enabled us to assess the receptor dependency of HBVpp infection. HBVpps preferentially infect hepatoma cells expressing NTCP, whereas other non-liver cells engineered to express NTCP do not support infection, suggesting that additional hepatocyte-specific factors are required for HBVpp internalization. These results highlight the value of the HBVpp system to dissect the pathways of HBV entry and dissemination.

Differential effect of p7 inhibitors on hepatitis C virus cell-to-cell transmission.

Inhibitors targeting the hepatitis C virus (HCV) encoded viroporin, p7 prevent virus release in vitro. HCV can transmit by cell-free particle infection of new target cells and via cell-to-cell dependent contact with limited exposure to the extracellular environment. The role of assembly inhibitors in preventing HCV transmission via these pathways has not been studied. We compared the efficacy of three published p7 inhibitors to inhibit cell-free and cell-to-cell transmission of two chimeric HCV strains encoding genotype 2 (GT2) or 5 (GT5) p7 using a recently developed single cycle co-culture assay. The inhibitors reduced the infectivity of extracellular GT2 and GT5 virus by 80-90% and GT2 virus cell-to-cell transmission by 50%. However, all of the p7 inhibitors had minimal effect on GT5 cell contact dependent transmission. Screening a wider panel of diverse viral genotypes demonstrated that p7 viroporin inhibitors were significantly more effective at blocking cell-free virus than cell-to-cell transmission. These results suggest an altered assembly or trafficking of cell-to-cell transmitted compared to secreted virus. These observations have important implications for the validation, therapeutic design and testing of HCV assembly inhibitors.

Hepatoma polarization limits CD81 and hepatitis C virus dynamics.

Many viruses target the polarized epithelial apex during host invasion. In contrast, hepatitis C virus (HCV) engages receptors at the basal surface of hepatocytes in the polarized liver parenchyma. Hepatocyte polarization limits HCV entry by undefined mechanism(s). Given the recent reports highlighting a role for receptor mobility in pathogen entry, we studied the effect(s) of hepatocyte polarization on viral receptor and HCV pseudoparticle (HCVpp) dynamics using real-time fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and single particle tracking. Hepatoma polarization reduced CD81 and HCVpp dynamics at the basal membrane. Since cell polarization is accompanied by changes in the actin cytoskeleton and CD81 links to actin via its C-terminus, we studied the dynamics of a mutant CD81 lacking a C-terminal tail (CD81(ΔC)) and its effect(s) on HCVpp mobility and infection. CD81(ΔC) showed an increased frequency of confined trajectories and a reduction of Brownian diffusing molecules compared to wild-type protein in non-polarized cells. However, these changes were notobserved in polarized cells. HCVpp showed a significant reduction in Brownian diffusion and infection of CD81(ΔC) expressing non-polarized cells. In summary, these data highlight the dynamic nature of CD81 and demonstrate a role for CD81 lateral diffusion to regulate HCV infection in a polarization-dependent manner.

Hepatitis C virus and the brain.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an enveloped, positive-strand RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae that primarily infects hepatocytes, causing acute and chronic liver disease. HCV is also associated with a variety of extrahepatic symptoms including central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities, cognitive dysfunction, fatigue and depression. These symptoms do not correlate with the severity of liver disease and are independent of hepatic encephalopathy. HCV RNA has been associated with CNS tissue, and reports of viral sequence diversity between brain and liver tissue suggest independent viral evolution in the CNS and liver. This review will explore the data supporting HCV infection of the CNS and how this fits into our current understanding of HCV pathogenesis.

Primary hepatocytes as targets for hepatitis C virus replication.

Much of our current understanding of hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication has hailed from the use of a small number of cloned viral genomes and transformed hepatoma cell lines. Recent evidence suggests that lipoproteins play a key role in the HCV life cycle and virus particles derived from the sera of infected patients exist in association with host lipoproteins. This report will review the literature on HCV replication in primary hepatocytes and transformed cell lines, focusing largely on host factors defining particle entry.

Diverse hepatitis C virus glycoproteins mediate viral infection in a CD81-dependent manner.

We recently reported that retroviral pseudotypes bearing the hepatitis C virus (HCV) strain H and Con1 glycoproteins, genotype 1a and 1b, respectively, require CD81 as a coreceptor for virus-cell entry and infection. Soluble truncated E2 cloned from a number of diverse HCV genotypes fail to interact with CD81, suggesting that viruses of diverse origin may utilize different receptors and display altered cell tropism. We have used the pseudotyping system to study the tropism of viruses bearing diverse HCV glycoproteins. Viruses bearing these glycoproteins showed a 150-fold range in infectivity for hepatoma cells and failed to infect lymphoid cells. The level of glycoprotein incorporation into particles varied considerably between strains, generally reflecting the E2 expression level within transfected cells. However, differences in glycoprotein incorporation were not associated with virus infectivity, suggesting that infectivity is not limited by the absolute level of glycoprotein. All HCV pseudotypes failed to infect HepG2 cells and yet infected the same cells after transduction to express human CD81, confirming the critical role of CD81 in HCV infection. Interestingly, these HCV pseudotypes differed in their ability to infect HepG2 cells expressing a panel of CD81 variants, suggesting subtle differences in the interaction of CD81 residues with diverse viral glycoproteins. Our current model of HCV infection suggests that CD81, together with additional unknown liver specific receptor(s), mediate the virus-cell entry process.

Neutralizing antibody response during acute and chronic hepatitis C virus infection.

Little is known about the role of Abs in determining the outcome of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. By using infectious retroviral pseudotypes bearing HCV glycoproteins, we measured neutralizing Ab (nAb) responses during acute and chronic HCV infection. In seven acutely infected health care workers, only two developed a nAb response that failed to associate with viral clearance. In contrast, the majority of chronically infected patients had nAbs. To determine the kinetics of strain-specific and crossreactive nAb emergence, we studied patient H, the source of the prototype genotype 1a H77 HCV strain. An early weak nAb response, specific for the autologous virus, was detected at seroconversion. However, neutralization of heterologous viruses was detected only between 33 and 111 weeks of infection. We also examined the development of nAbs in 10 chimpanzees infected with H77 clonal virus. No nAb responses were detected in three animals that cleared virus, whereas strain-specific nAbs were detected in six of the seven chronically infected animals after approximately 50 weeks of infection. The delayed appearance of high titer crossreactive nAbs in chronically infected patients suggests that selective mechanism(s) may operate to prevent the appearance of these Abs during acute infection. The long-term persistence of these nAbs in chronically infected patients may regulate viral replication.

Truncated gp120 envelope glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus 1 elicits a broadly reactive neutralizing immune response.

Removal of the V1-V3 loops from IIIB gp120 results in a protein, PR12, with altered immunogenicity compared to the full-length protein. Polyclonal immune sera raised in rats using PR12 as immunogen recognizes envelope glycoproteins of clades A, B, C, E, F and G and can neutralize chimeric human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) HXB2 viruses expressing envelopes from primary HIV-1 clades B, C, E and F. These data suggest that the immune response to PR12 is directed toward conserved epitopes expressed by viral glycoproteins of diverse genotypes. Five monoclonal antibodies (mAb) derived from PR12-immunized rats were unable to neutralize virus infectivity; hence the epitopes responsible for the induction of this cross-clade neutralizing activity remain to be elucidated. However, PR12 immune sera were able to compete with the human neutralizing mAb 2G12 for gp120 binding, implying that this epitope may be immunogenic when expressed in the context of this truncated protein.

Antigenic variation within the CD4 binding site of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120: effects on chemokine receptor utilization.

To assess the antigenicity of envelope glycoproteins derived from primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 populations, their interactions with the receptor CD4, and their coreceptor usage, we have cloned and expressed multiple gp120 proteins from a number of primary virus isolates. Characterization of these proteins showed a high degree of antigenic polymorphism both within the CD4 binding site and in defined neutralization epitopes, which may partially account for the general resistance of primary isolates to neutralizing agents. Furthermore, chimeric viruses expressing gp120 proteins with reduced CD4 binding abilities are viable, suggesting that primary viruses may require a less avid interaction with the receptor CD4 to initiate infection than do their laboratory-adapted counterparts. The coreceptor usage of chimeric viruses was related to the ability of the virus to bind CD4, with reduced CD4 binding correlating with preferential usage of CXCR4. Changes in coreceptor usage mapped to sequence changes in the C2 and V4 regions, with no changes seen in the V3 region.

Construction and characterization of chimeric hepatitis C virus E2 glycoproteins: analysis of regions critical for glycoprotein aggregation and CD81 binding.

We compared the ability of two closely related truncated E2 glycoproteins (E2(660)) derived from hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1a strains Glasgow (Gla) and H77c to bind a panel of conformation-dependent monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) and CD81. In contrast to H77c, Gla E2(660) formed disulfide-linked high molecular mass aggregates and failed to react with conformation-dependent MAbs and CD81. To delineate amino acid (aa) regions associated with protein aggregation and CD81 binding, several Gla-H77c E2(660) chimeric glycoproteins were constructed. Chimeras C1, C2 and C6, carrying aa 525-660 of Gla E2(660), produced disulfide-linked aggregates and failed to bind CD81 and conformation-dependent MAbs, suggesting that amino acids within this region are responsible for protein misfolding. The presence of Gla hypervariable region 1 (aa 384-406) on H77 E2(660), chimera C4, had no effect on protein folding or CD81 binding. Chimeras C3 and C5, carrying aa 384-524 or 407-524 of Gla E2(660), respectively, were recognized by conformation-dependent MAbs and yet failed to bind CD81, suggesting that amino acids in region 407-524 are important in modulating CD81 interaction without affecting antigen folding. Comparison of Gla and H77c E2(660) aa sequences with those of genotype 1a and divergent genotypes identified a number of variant amino acids, including two putative N-linked glycosylation sites at positions 476 and 532. However, introduction of G476N-G478S and/or D532N in Gla E2(660) had no effect on antigenicity or aggregation.

Hepatitis C virus glycoprotein E2 binding to CD81: the role of E1E2 cleavage and protein glycosylation in bioactivity.

The hepatitis C virus glycoproteins E1 and 2 have been expressed using recombinant baculoviruses following fusion to the carrier protein glutathione S-transferase (GST). Proteins were expressed singly and as an E1E2 polyprotein with and without an N-terminal affinity tag. Expression of the E1E2 polyprotein, even when preceded by GST, led to processing in insect cells and detection of an E1E2 complex that could be specifically purified by glutathione affinity chromatography. Baculovirus expressed E2 and a purified GST-E1E2 protein bound to the second extracellular loop of CD81 (EC2), a reported ligand for the molecule, but not to a truncated derivative of CD81 consisting of only the central domain of the loop. Purified GST-E2, however, failed to bind to CD81 suggesting a requirement for a free E2 amino terminus for biological activity. The binding to CD81 by baculovirus expressed E2 protein was comparable to that observed for E2 derived from mammalian cells when detected by a monoclonal antibody sensitive to protein conformation. Furthermore, E2 protein expressed in insect cells in the presence of N-butyldeoxynojirimycin, an inhibitor of terminal glucose residue processing, formed complexes with E1 and bound to CD81-EC2 similarly to untreated protein. Together these data suggest that although hyperglucosylation of E2 does not have a major effect on bioactivity, polyprotein processing to reveal the free amino terminus is required.

Identification of amino acid residues in CD81 critical for interaction with hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein E2.

Human CD81 has been previously identified as the putative receptor for the hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein E2. The large extracellular loop (LEL) of human CD81 differs in four amino acid residues from that of the African green monkey (AGM), which does not bind E2. We mutated each of the four positions in human CD81 to the corresponding AGM residues and expressed them as soluble fusion LEL proteins in bacteria or as complete membrane proteins in mammalian cells. We found human amino acid 186 to be critical for the interaction with the viral envelope glycoprotein. This residue was also important for binding of certain anti-CD81 monoclonal antibodies. Mutating residues 188 and 196 did not affect E2 or antibody binding. Interestingly, mutation of residue 163 increased both E2 and antibody binding, suggesting that this amino acid contributes to the tertiary structure of CD81 and its ligand-binding ability. These observations have implications for the design of soluble high-affinity molecules that could target the CD81-E2 interaction site(s).

The role of the hepatitis C virus glycoproteins in infection.

HCV encodes two glycoproteins, E1 and E2, that are believed to be exposed on the surface of virions. These molecules are likely to be involved in viral interactions with the host immune response and responsible for mediating viral entry into target cells. They are obvious major components for prototype vaccine studies. Recently, E2 has been reported to bind to the tetraspan molecule CD81, which represents a putative receptor for HCV. Here, we discuss the role the HCV gps may play during infection, the contribution of E2 gp variation to HCV evasion from the immune response and possible implications of the E2-CD81 interaction for HCV pathogenesis.

Functional characterization of intracellular and secreted forms of a truncated hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein.

The E2 protein of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is believed to be a virion surface glycoprotein that is a candidate for inclusion in an antiviral vaccine. A truncated soluble version of E2 has recently been shown to interact with CD81, suggesting that this protein may be a component of the receptor for HCV. When expressed in eukaryotic cells, a significant proportion of E2 forms misfolded aggregates. To analyze the specificity of interaction between E2 and CD81, the aggregated and monomeric forms of a truncated E2 glycoprotein (E2(661)) were separated by high-pressure liquid chromatography and analyzed for CD81 binding. Nonaggregated forms of E2 preferentially bound CD81 and a number of conformation-dependent monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). Furthermore, intracellular forms of E2(661) were found to bind CD81 with greater affinity than the extracellular forms. Intracellular and secreted forms of E2(661) were also found to differ in reactivity with MAbs and human sera, consistent with differences in antigenicity. Together, these data indicate that proper folding of E2 is important for its interaction with CD81 and that modifications of glycans can modulate this interaction. Identification of the biologically active forms of E2 will assist in the future design of vaccines to protect against HCV infection.

Characterization of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein interaction with a putative cellular receptor, CD81.

A truncated soluble form of the hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein, E2661, binds specifically to the surface of cells expressing human CD81 (hCD81) but not other members of the tetraspanin family (CD9, CD63, and CD151). No differences were noted between the level of E2661 binding to hCD81 expressed on the surface of rat RBL or KM3 cells compared to Daudi and Molt-4 cells, suggesting that additional human-cell-specific factors are not required for the primary interaction of E2 with the cell surface. E2 did not interact with African green monkey (AGM) CD81 on the surface of COS cells, which differs from the hCD81 sequence at four residues within the second extracellular region (EC2) (amino acids [aa] 163, 186, 188, and 196), suggesting that one or more of these residues defines the site of interaction with E2. Various recombinant forms of CD81 EC2 show differences in the ability to bind E2, suggesting that CD81 conformation is important for E2 recognition. Regions of E2 involved in the CD81 interaction were analyzed, and our data suggest that the binding site is of a conformational nature involving aa 480 to 493 and 544 to 551 within the E2 glycoprotein. Finally, we demonstrate that ligation of CD81 by E2661 induced aggregation of lymphoid cells and inhibited B-cell proliferation, demonstrating that E2 interaction with CD81 can modulate cell function.

Functional analysis of cell surface-expressed hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) glycoproteins E1 and E2, when expressed in eukaryotic cells, are retained in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). C-terminal truncation of E2 at residue 661 or 715 (position on the polyprotein) leads to secretion, consistent with deletion of a proposed hydrophobic transmembrane anchor sequence. We demonstrate cell surface expression of a chimeric glycoprotein consisting of E2 residues 384 to 661 fused to the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of influenza A virus hemagglutinin (HA), termed E2661-HATMCT. The E2661-HATMCT chimeric glycoprotein was able to bind a number of conformation-dependent monoclonal antibodies and a recombinant soluble form of CD81, suggesting that it was folded in a manner comparable to "native" E2. Furthermore, cell surface-expressed E2661-HATMCT demonstrated pH-dependent changes in antigen conformation, consistent with an acid-mediated fusion mechanism. However, E2661-HATMCT was unable to induce cell fusion of CD81-positive HEK cells after neutral- or low-pH treatment. We propose that a stretch of conserved, hydrophobic amino acids within the E1 glycoprotein, displaying similarities to flavivirus and paramyxovirus fusion peptides, may constitute the HCV fusion peptide. We demonstrate that influenza virus can incorporate E2661-HATMCT into particles and discuss experiments to address the relevance of the E2-CD81 interaction for HCV attachment and entry.

The role of the viral glycoprotein in HIV-1 persistence.

The study of the immunological defects which arise from HIV infection has led to a deeper understanding both of the normal immune system and of the mechanisms by which it is damaged in disease. The interactions between viral and host factors during the early stages of HIV infection leads to a post-seroconversion steady state or 'set point' of viral RNA load, which has been shown to be a prognostic marker for subsequent progression rates, further underlining the important role of early immunological responses in the disease process. The changing immune response during the course of infection, together with the changing patterns of antigenicity and tropism leads to a complex series of evolutionary interactions which can be monitored as a series of changes in the properties of the virus over time. Furthermore, significant differences may be seen between the antigenicity of viruses adapted to grow in tissue culture and viruses cultured only briefly in primary cells, and also between the antigenicity of monomeric and oligomeric subunit immunogens. The immunodominant, highly polymorphic and rapidly changing envelope glycoproteins of HIV remains the single biggest target for the design of successful candidate vaccines. The recent crystallisation of one HIV envelope, the proven existence of functionally conserved neutralisation targets and our increasing knowledge of the behaviour of the envelope glycoprotein in vivo offers the possibility that the next generation of vaccine candidates will have a far higher chance of success than has currently been achieved.

Shorter survival in advanced human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection is more closely associated with T lymphocyte activation than with plasma virus burden or virus chemokine coreceptor usage.

To define predictors of survival time in late human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) disease, long- and short-duration survivors were studied after their CD4+ T cells fell to