Identifying parkinsonism in mild cognitive impairment.

INTRODUCTION: Clinical parkinsonism is a core diagnostic feature for mild cognitive impairment with Lewy bodies (MCI-LB) but can be challenging to identify. A five-item scale derived from the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) has been recommended for the assessment of parkinsonism in dementia. This study aimed to determine whether the five-item scale is effective to identify parkinsonism in MCI. METHODS: Participants with MCI from two cohorts (n = 146) had a physical examination including the UPDRS and [123I]-FP-CIT SPECT striatal dopaminergic imaging. Participants were classified as having clinical parkinsonism (P+) or no parkinsonism (P-), and with abnormal striatal dopaminergic imaging (D+) or normal imaging (D-). The five-item scale was the sum of UPDRS tremor at rest, bradykinesia, action tremor, facial expression, and rigidity scores. The ability of the scale to differentiate P+D+ and P-D- participants was examined. RESULTS: The five-item scale had an AUROC of 0.92 in Cohort 1, but the 7/8 cut-off defined for dementia had low sensitivity to identify P+D+ participants (sensitivity 25%, specificity 100%). Optimal sensitivity and specificity was obtained at a 3/4 cut-off (sensitivity 83%, specificity 88%). In Cohort 2, the five-item scale had an AUROC of 0.97, and the 3/4 cut-off derived from Cohort 1 showed sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 82% to differentiate P+D+ from P-D- participants. The five-item scale was not effective in differentiating D+ from D- participants. CONCLUSIONS: The five-item scale is effective to identify parkinsonism in MCI, but a lower threshold must be used in MCI compared with dementia.

Lewy body dementia: Overcoming barriers and identifying solutions.

Despite its high prevalence among dementias, Lewy body dementia (LBD) remains poorly understood with a limited, albeit growing, evidence base. The public-health burden that LBD imposes is worsened by overlapping pathologies, which contribute to misdiagnosis, and lack of treatments. For this report, we gathered and analyzed public-domain information on advocacy, funding, research outputs, and the therapeutic pipeline to identify gaps in each of these key elements. To further understand the current gaps, we also conducted interviews with leading experts in regulatory/governmental agencies, LBD advocacy, academic research, and biopharmaceutical research, as well as with funding sources. We identified wide gaps across the entire landscape, the most critical being in research. Many of the experts participated in a workshop to discuss the prioritization of research areas with a view to accelerating therapeutic development and improving patient care. This white paper outlines the opportunities for bridging the major LBD gaps and creates the framework for collaboration in that endeavor. HIGHLIGHTS: A group representing academia, government, industry, and consulting expertise was convened to discuss current progress in Dementia with Lewy Body care and research. Consideration of expert opinion,natural language processing of the literature as well as publicly available data bases, and Delphi inspired discussion led to a proposed consensus document of priorities for the field.

Poor reactivity of posterior electroencephalographic alpha rhythms during the eyes open condition in patients with dementia due to Parkinson's disease.

Here, we hypothesized that the reactivity of posterior resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) alpha rhythms during the transition from eyes-closed to -open condition might be lower in patients with Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD) than in patients with Alzheimer's disease dementia (ADD). A Eurasian database provided clinical-demographic-rsEEG datasets in 73 PDD patients, 35 ADD patients, and 25 matched cognitively unimpaired (Healthy) persons. The eLORETA freeware was used to estimate cortical rsEEG sources. Results showed substantial (greater than -10%) reduction (reactivity) in the posterior alpha source activities from the eyes-closed to the eyes-open condition in 88% of the Healthy seniors, 57% of the ADD patients, and only 35% of the PDD patients. In these alpha-reactive participants, there was lower reactivity in the parietal alpha source activities in the PDD group than in the healthy control seniors and the ADD patients. These results suggest that PDD patients show poor reactivity of mechanisms desynchronizing posterior rsEEG alpha rhythms in response to visual inputs. That neurophysiological biomarker may provide an endpoint for (non) pharmacological interventions for improving vigilance regulation in those patients.

Relationship between default mode network and resting-state electroencephalographic alpha rhythms in cognitively unimpaired seniors and patients with dementia due to Alzheimer's disease.

Here we tested the hypothesis of a relationship between the cortical default mode network (DMN) structural integrity and the resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms in patients with Alzheimer's disease with dementia (ADD). Clinical and instrumental datasets in 45 ADD patients and 40 normal elderly (Nold) persons originated from the PDWAVES Consortium (www.pdwaves.eu). Individual rsEEG delta, theta, alpha, and fixed beta and gamma bands were considered. Freeware platforms served to derive (1) the (gray matter) volume of the DMN, dorsal attention (DAN), and sensorimotor (SMN) cortical networks and (2) the rsEEG cortical eLORETA source activities. We found a significant positive association between the DMN gray matter volume, the rsEEG alpha source activity estimated in the posterior DMN nodes (parietal and posterior cingulate cortex), and the global cognitive status in the Nold and ADD participants. Compared with the Nold, the ADD group showed lower DMN gray matter, lower rsEEG alpha source activity in those nodes, and lower global cognitive status. This effect was not observed in the DAN and SMN. These results suggest that the DMN structural integrity and the rsEEG alpha source activities in the DMN posterior hubs may be related and predict the global cognitive status in ADD and Nold persons.

Sleep disorders in Lewy body dementia: Mechanisms, clinical relevance, and unanswered questions.

In Lewy body dementia (LBD), disturbances of sleep and/or arousal including insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder, obstructive sleep apnea, and restless leg syndrome are common. These disorders can each exert a significant negative impact on both patient and caregiver quality of life; however, their etiology is poorly understood. Little guidance is available for assessing and managing sleep disorders in LBD, and they remain under-diagnosed and under-treated. This review aims to (1) describe the specific sleep disorders which occur in LBD, considering their putative or potential mechanisms; (2) describe the history and diagnostic process for these disorders in LBD; and (3) summarize current evidence for their management in LBD and consider some of the ongoing and unanswered questions in this field and future research directions.

Defining the Riddle in Order to Solve It: There Is More Than One "Parkinson's Disease".

BACKGROUND: More than 200 years after James Parkinsondescribed a clinical syndrome based on his astute observations, Parkinson's disease (PD) has evolved into a complex entity, akin to the heterogeneity of other complex human syndromes of the central nervous system such as dementia, motor neuron disease, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy. Clinicians, pathologists, and basic science researchers evolved arrange of concepts andcriteria for the clinical, genetic, mechanistic, and neuropathological characterization of what, in their best judgment, constitutes PD. However, these specialists have generated and used criteria that are not necessarily aligned between their different operational definitions, which may hinder progress in solving the riddle of the distinct forms of PD and ultimately how to treat them. OBJECTIVE: This task force has identified current in consistencies between the definitions of PD and its diverse variants in different domains: clinical criteria, neuropathological classification, genetic subtyping, biomarker signatures, and mechanisms of disease. This initial effort for "defining the riddle" will lay the foundation for future attempts to better define the range of PD and its variants, as has been done and implemented for other heterogeneous neurological syndromes, such as stroke and peripheral neuropathy. We strongly advocate for a more systematic and evidence-based integration of our diverse disciplines by looking at well-defined variants of the syndrome of PD. CONCLUSION: Accuracy in defining endophenotypes of "typical PD" across these different but interrelated disciplines will enable better definition of variants and their stratification in therapeutic trials, a prerequisite for breakthroughs in the era of precision medicine. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Clinical symptoms in mild cognitive impairment with Lewy bodies: Frequency, time of onset, and discriminant ability.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Mild cognitive impairment with Lewy bodies (MCI-LB) is associated with a range of cognitive, motor, neuropsychiatric, sleep, autonomic, and visual symptoms. We investigated the cumulative frequency of symptoms in a longitudinal cohort of MCI-LB compared with MCI due to Alzheimer disease (MCI-AD) and analysed the ability of a previously described 10-point symptom scale to differentiate MCI-LB and MCI-AD, in an independent cohort. METHODS: Participants with probable MCI-LB (n = 70), MCI-AD (n = 51), and controls (n = 34) had a detailed clinical assessment and annual follow-up (mean duration = 1.7 years). The presence of a range of symptoms was ascertained using a modified version of the Lewy Body Disease Association Comprehensive LBD Symptom Checklist at baseline assessment and then annually. RESULTS: MCI-LB participants experienced a greater mean number of symptoms (24.2, SD = 7.6) compared with MCI-AD (11.3, SD = 7.4) and controls (4.2, SD = 3.1; p < 0.001 for all comparisons). A range of cognitive, parkinsonian, neuropsychiatric, sleep, and autonomic symptoms were significantly more common in MCI-LB than MCI-AD, although when present, the time of onset was similar between the two groups. A previously defined 10-point symptom scale demonstrated very good discrimination between MCI-LB and MCI-AD (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve = 0.91, 95% confidence interval = 0.84-0.98), replicating our previous finding in a new cohort. CONCLUSIONS: MCI-LB is associated with the frequent presence of a particular profile of symptoms compared to MCI-AD. Clinicians should look for evidence of these symptoms in MCI and be aware of the potential for treatment. The presence of these symptoms may help to discriminate MCI-LB from MCI-AD.

Dementia with Lewy bodies: Impact of co-pathologies and implications for clinical trial design.

Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is clinically defined by the presence of visual hallucinations, fluctuations, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavioral disorder, and parkinsonism. Neuropathologically, it is characterized by the presence of Lewy pathology. However, neuropathological studies have demonstrated the high prevalence of coexistent Alzheimer's disease, TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43), and cerebrovascular pathologic cases. Due to their high prevalence and clinical impact on DLB individuals, clinical trials should account for these co-pathologies in their design and selection and the interpretation of biomarkers values and outcomes. Here we discuss the frequency of the different co-pathologies in DLB and their cross-sectional and longitudinal clinical impact. We then evaluate the utility and possible applications of disease-specific and disease-nonspecific biomarkers and how co-pathologies can impact these biomarkers. We propose a framework for integrating multi-modal biomarker fingerprints and step-wise selection and assessment of DLB individuals for clinical trials, monitoring target engagement, and interpreting outcomes in the setting of co-pathologies.

Common Variants Near ZIC1 and ZIC4 in Autopsy-Confirmed Multiple System Atrophy.

BACKGROUND: Multiple System Atrophy is a rare neurodegenerative disease with alpha-synuclein aggregation in glial cytoplasmic inclusions and either predominant olivopontocerebellar atrophy or striatonigral degeneration, leading to dysautonomia, parkinsonism, and cerebellar ataxia. One prior genome-wide association study in mainly clinically diagnosed patients with Multiple System Atrophy failed to identify genetic variants predisposing for the disease. OBJECTIVE: Since the clinical diagnosis of Multiple System Atrophy yields a high rate of misdiagnosis when compared to the neuropathological gold standard, we studied only autopsy-confirmed cases. METHODS: We studied common genetic variations in Multiple System Atrophy cases (N = 731) and controls (N = 2898). RESULTS: The most strongly disease-associated markers were rs16859966 on chromosome 3, rs7013955 on chromosome 8, and rs116607983 on chromosome 4 with P-values below 5 × 10-6 , all of which were supported by at least one additional genotyped and several imputed single nucleotide polymorphisms. The genes closest to the chromosome 3 locus are ZIC1 and ZIC4 encoding the zinc finger proteins of cerebellum 1 and 4 (ZIC1 and ZIC4). INTERPRETATION: Since mutations of ZIC1 and ZIC4 and paraneoplastic autoantibodies directed against ZIC4 are associated with severe cerebellar dysfunction, we conducted immunohistochemical analyses in brain tissue of the frontal cortex and the cerebellum from 24 Multiple System Atrophy patients. Strong immunohistochemical expression of ZIC4 was detected in a subset of neurons of the dentate nucleus in all healthy controls and in patients with striatonigral degeneration, whereas ZIC4-immunoreactive neurons were significantly reduced inpatients with olivopontocerebellar atrophy. These findings point to a potential ZIC4-mediated vulnerability of neurons in Multiple System Atrophy. © 2022 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Reactivity of posterior cortical electroencephalographic alpha rhythms during eyes opening in cognitively intact older adults and patients with dementia due to Alzheimer's and Lewy body diseases.

Please modify the Abstract as follows:Here we tested if the reactivity of posterior resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) alpha rhythms from the eye-closed to the eyes-open condition may differ in patients with dementia due to Lewy Bodies (DLB) and Alzheimer's disease (ADD) as a functional probe of the dominant neural synchronization mechanisms regulating the vigilance in posterior visual systems.We used clinical, demographical, and rsEEG datasets in 28 older adults (Healthy), 42 DLB, and 48 ADD participants. The eLORETA freeware was used to estimate cortical rsEEG sources.Results showed a substantial (> -10%) reduction in the posterior alpha activities during the eyes-open condition in 24 Healthy, 26 ADD, and 22 DLB subjects. There were lower reductions in the posterior alpha activities in the ADD and DLB groups than in the Healthy group. That reduction in the occipital region was lower in the DLB than in the ADD group.These results suggest that DLB patients may suffer from a greater alteration in the neural synchronization mechanisms regulating vigilance in occipital cortical systems compared to ADD patients.

Clinical outcome measures in dementia with Lewy bodies trials: critique and recommendations.

The selection of appropriate outcome measures is fundamental to the design of any successful clinical trial. Although dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is one of the most common neurodegenerative conditions, assessment of therapeutic benefit in clinical trials often relies on tools developed for other conditions, such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. These may not be sufficiently valid or sensitive to treatment changes in DLB, decreasing their utility. In this review, we discuss the limitations and strengths of selected available tools used to measure DLB-associated outcomes in clinical trials and highlight the potential roles for more specific objective measures. We emphasize that the existing outcome measures require validation in the DLB population and that DLB-specific outcomes need to be developed. Finally, we highlight how the selection of outcome measures may vary between symptomatic and disease-modifying therapy trials.

α-Synuclein phosphorylation at serine 129 occurs after initial protein deposition and inhibits seeded fibril formation and toxicity.

α-Synuclein (α-syn) phosphorylation at serine 129 (pS129­α-syn) is substantially increased in Lewy body disease, such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). However, the pathogenic relevance of pS129­α-syn remains controversial, so we sought to identify when pS129 modification occurs during α-syn aggregation and its role in initiation, progression and cellular toxicity of disease. Using diverse aggregation assays, including real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) on brain homogenates from PD and DLB cases, we demonstrated that pS129­α-syn inhibits α-syn fibril formation and seeded aggregation. We also identified lower seeding propensity of pS129­α-syn in cultured cells and correspondingly attenuated cellular toxicity. To build upon these findings, we developed a monoclonal antibody (4B1) specifically recognizing nonphosphorylated S129­α-syn (WT­α-syn) and noted that S129 residue is more efficiently phosphorylated when the protein is aggregated. Using this antibody, we characterized the time-course of α-syn phosphorylation in organotypic mouse hippocampal cultures and mice injected with α-syn preformed fibrils, and we observed aggregation of nonphosphorylated α-syn followed by later pS129­α-syn. Furthermore, in postmortem brain tissue from PD and DLB patients, we observed an inverse relationship between relative abundance of nonphosphorylated α-syn and disease duration. These findings suggest that pS129­α-syn occurs subsequent to initial protein aggregation and apparently inhibits further aggregation. This could possibly imply a potential protective role for pS129­α-syn, which has major implications for understanding the pathobiology of Lewy body disease and the continued use of reduced pS129­α-syn as a measure of efficacy in clinical trials.

Inflammation in dementia with Lewy bodies.

Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) is the second most common neurodegenerative cause of dementia, behind Alzheimer's disease (AD). The profile of inflammation in AD has been extensively researched in recent years, with evidence that chronic peripheral inflammation in midlife increases the risk of late-onset AD, and data supporting inflammation being associated with disease progression. In contrast, our understanding of the role of inflammation in DLB is less developed. Most research to date has examined inflammation in related disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, but there is now a growing range of literature examining inflammation in DLB itself. We present a review of the literature in this field, exploring a range of research methodologies including those quantifying markers of inflammation in cerebrospinal fluid, peripheral blood, post-mortem brain tissue, and using neuroimaging and preclinical data. Our review reveals evidence from PET imaging and peripheral blood analysis to support an increase in cerebral and peripheral inflammation in mild or prodromal DLB, that dissipates with disease progression. We present evidence from post-mortem brain tissue and pre-clinical studies that indicate α-synuclein directly promotes inflammation, but that also support the presence of AD co-pathology as an important factor in the profile of neuroinflammation in DLB. We propose that specific markers of inflammation may play a sentinel role in the mild stage of the disease, particularly when combined with AD pathology. We advocate further examination of the profile of inflammation in DLB through robust longitudinal studies, to enhance our understanding of the pathogenesis of the disease. The goal should be to utilise future results to develop a composite biomarker to aid diagnosis of DLB, and to potentially identify novel therapeutic targets.

Classification of Patients with Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia with Lewy Bodies using Resting EEG Selected Features at Sensor and Source Levels: A Proof-of-Concept Study.

BACKGROUND: Early differentiation between Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) is important for accurate prognosis, as DLB patients typically show faster disease progression. Cortical neural networks, necessary for human cognitive function, may be disrupted differently in DLB and AD patients, allowing diagnostic differentiation between AD and DLB. OBJECTIVE: This proof-of-concept study assessed whether the application of machine learning techniques to data derived from resting-state electroencephalographic (rsEEG) rhythms (discriminant sensor power, 19 electrodes) and source connectivity (between five cortical regions of interest) allowed differentiation between DLB and AD. METHODS: Clinical, demographic, and rsEEG datasets from DLB patients (N=30), AD patients (N=30), and control seniors (NOld, N=30), matched for age, sex, and education, were taken from our international database. Individual (delta, theta, alpha) and fixed (beta) rsEEG frequency bands were included. The rsEEG features for the classification task were computed at both sensor and source levels. The source level was based on eLORETA freeware toolboxes for estimating cortical source activity and linear lagged connectivity. Fluctuations of rsEEG recordings (band-pass waveform envelopes of each EEG rhythm) were also computed at both sensor and source levels. After blind feature reduction, rsEEG features served as input to support vector machine (SVM) classifiers. Discrimination of individuals from the three groups was measured with standard performance metrics (accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity). RESULTS: The trained SVM two-class classifiers showed classification accuracies of 97.6% for NOld vs. AD, 99.7% for NOld vs. DLB, and 97.8% for AD vs. DLB. Three-class classifiers (AD vs. DLB vs. NOld) showed classification accuracy of 94.79%. CONCLUSION: These promising preliminary results should encourage future prospective and longitudinal cross-validation studies using higher resolution EEG techniques and harmonized clinical procedures to enable the clinical application of these machine learning techniques.

Altered ceramide metabolism is a feature in the extracellular vesicle-mediated spread of alpha-synuclein in Lewy body disorders.

Mutations in glucocerebrosidase (GBA) are the most prevalent genetic risk factor for Lewy body disorders (LBD)-collectively Parkinson's disease, Parkinson's disease dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies. Despite this genetic association, it remains unclear how GBA mutations increase susceptibility to develop LBD. We investigated relationships between LBD-specific glucocerebrosidase deficits, GBA-related pathways, and α-synuclein levels in brain tissue from LBD and controls, with and without GBA mutations. We show that LBD is characterised by altered sphingolipid metabolism with prominent elevation of ceramide species, regardless of GBA mutations. Since extracellular vesicles (EV) could be involved in LBD pathogenesis by spreading disease-linked lipids and proteins, we investigated EV derived from post-mortem cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and brain tissue from GBA mutation carriers and non-carriers. EV purified from LBD CSF and frontal cortex were heavily loaded with ceramides and neurodegeneration-linked proteins including alpha-synuclein and tau. Our in vitro studies demonstrate that LBD EV constitute a "pathological package" capable of inducing aggregation of wild-type alpha-synuclein, mediated through a combination of alpha-synuclein-ceramide interaction and the presence of pathological forms of alpha-synuclein. Together, our findings indicate that abnormalities in ceramide metabolism are a feature of LBD, constituting a promising source of biomarkers, and that GBA mutations likely accelerate the pathological process occurring in sporadic LBD through endolysosomal deficiency.

Progression of Clinical Features in Lewy Body Dementia Can Be Detected Over 6 Months.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to quantify the trajectory and magnitude of change of the key clinical features and corresponding symptom domains of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Parkinson disease dementia (PDD), including global cognition, parkinsonism, recurrent visual hallucinations, cognitive fluctuations, and sleep disturbance. METHODS: One hundred sixteen patients with Lewy body dementia (DLB = 72, PDD = 44) underwent assessment at baseline and 3 and 6 months as part of a prospective multicenter randomized controlled trial. Linear mixed models were constructed for core outcome measures using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), motor section of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS-III), Dementia Cognitive Fluctuations Scale (DCFS), and Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI). RESULTS: Within the time frame of our study (6 months), we were able to identify a significant cognitive decline of 1.3 points on the MMSE (p = 0.002) and significant worsening of motor parkinsonism with an increase in UPDRS-III score of 3.2 points (p = 0.018). Fluctuation severity also increased using the DCFS with a 6-month change in score of 1.3 points (p = 0.001). Uniquely, a signal for increased severity of sleep symptoms of 1.2 points (NPI-sleep) was also detectable (p = 0.04). Significant changes in neuropsychiatric symptoms were not detected. There was no difference in rates of change of scores between DLB and PDD. DISCUSSION: Clinically significant rates of change in core clinical features can be detected and quantified in Lewy body dementia over a relatively short period (6 months) using common clinical instruments and thus may be useful as clinical endpoints for therapeutic trials of disease-modifying and symptomatic agents.

Progression to Dementia in Mild Cognitive Impairment With Lewy Bodies or Alzheimer Disease.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether mild cognitive impairment with Lewy bodies or Alzheimer's disease differ in their rates of clinical progression to dementia, we undertook longitudinal observation of mild cognitive impairment cases with detailed clinical assessment of Lewy body diagnostic characteristics. METHODS: Two prospective longitudinal cohorts combining to 111 individuals aged 60 years or older with mild cognitive impairment were assessed annually to track cognitive and clinical progression, including the presence or absence of core clinical features and proposed biomarkers of dementia with Lewy bodies. Multi-state modelling was used to assess the associations of diagnostic characteristics of dementia with Lewy bodies with clinical progression from mild cognitive impairment to dementia, with death as a competing outcome. RESULTS: After a mean follow-up of 2.2 years (range = 1-6.7 years), 38/111 (34%) of the participants progressed to dementia: 10 with AD, 3 with possible dementia with Lewy bodies and 25 with probable dementia with Lewy bodies. The presence of any Lewy body disease characteristic was associated with an increased hazard of transition to dementia; this risk further increased as more diagnostic characteristics were observed (Hazard ratio = 1.33 per characteristic, 95% CI: 1.11-1.60), and was especially high for those experiencing complex visual hallucinations (Hazard ratio = 1.98, 95% CI: 0.92-4.29) or cognitive fluctuations (Hazard ratio = 3.99, 95% CI: 2.03-7.84). CONCLUSIONS: Diagnostic characteristics of Lewy body disease are associated with an increased risk of transition from mild cognitive impairment to dementia.

Measures of resting state EEG rhythms for clinical trials in Alzheimer's disease: Recommendations of an expert panel.

The Electrophysiology Professional Interest Area (EPIA) and Global Brain Consortium endorsed recommendations on candidate electroencephalography (EEG) measures for Alzheimer's disease (AD) clinical trials. The Panel reviewed the field literature. As most consistent findings, AD patients with mild cognitive impairment and dementia showed abnormalities in peak frequency, power, and "interrelatedness" at posterior alpha (8-12 Hz) and widespread delta (< 4 Hz) and theta (4-8 Hz) rhythms in relation to disease progression and interventions. The following consensus statements were subscribed: (1) Standardization of instructions to patients, resting state EEG (rsEEG) recording methods, and selection of artifact-free rsEEG periods are needed; (2) power density and "interrelatedness" rsEEG measures (e.g., directed transfer function, phase lag index, linear lagged connectivity, etc.) at delta, theta, and alpha frequency bands may be use for stratification of AD patients and monitoring of disease progression and intervention; and (3) international multisectoral initiatives are mandatory for regulatory purposes.

Lipids, lysosomes and mitochondria: insights into Lewy body formation from rare monogenic disorders.

Accumulation of the protein α-synuclein into insoluble intracellular deposits termed Lewy bodies (LBs) is the characteristic neuropathological feature of LB diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD) and dementia with LB (DLB). α-Synuclein aggregation is thought to be a critical pathogenic event in the aetiology of LB disease, based on genetic analyses, fundamental studies using model systems, and the observation of LB pathology in post-mortem tissue. However, some monogenic disorders not traditionally characterised as synucleinopathies, such as lysosomal storage disorders, iron storage disorders and mitochondrial diseases, appear disproportionately vulnerable to the deposition of LBs, perhaps suggesting the process of LB formation may be a result of processes perturbed as a result of these conditions. The present review discusses biological pathways common to monogenic disorders associated with LB formation, identifying catabolic processes, particularly related to lipid homeostasis, autophagy and mitochondrial function, as processes that could contribute to LB formation. These findings are discussed in the context of known mediators of α-synuclein aggregation, highlighting the potential influence of impairments to these processes in the aetiology of LB formation.