Factors associated with self-reported diagnosed asthma in urban and rural Malawi: Observations from a population-based study of non-communicable diseases.

The growing burden of asthma in low- and middle-income countries has been linked to urbanisation and lifestyle changes. However, this burden has not been well characterised in adults. Therefore, we investigated the prevalence of self-reported diagnosed asthma and associated factors in urban and rural adults in Malawi, Southern Africa. Within a cross-sectional population-based survey to determine the burden and risk factors for non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in the city of Lilongwe and rural Karonga district, we collected information on self-reported previously diagnosed asthma and asthma-related symptoms using an interviewer-led questionnaire. Other data collected included: demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status indicators, NCD comorbidities, environmental exposures, and anthropometric measurements. We used multivariable logistic regression models to explore factors associated with self-reported asthma adjusting for variables associated with the outcome in univariable analysis. Findings were corrected for multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni method. We analysed data from 30,483 adult participants (54.6% urban,45.4% rural and 61.9% female). A prior asthma diagnosis was reported in 5.1% of urban and 4.5% of rural participants. In urban females, being obese (>30 kg/m2) compared to normal weight (18.5-24.9 kg/m2) was associated with greater odds of asthma (OR = 1.59, 95% CI [1.26-2.01], p<0.001), after adjusting for confounders. We observed associations between previously diagnosed heart disease and asthma in female participants which remained significant in rural females after Bonferroni correction (OR = 2.30,95%CI [1.32-4.02], p = 0.003). Among rural males, current smokers had reduced odds of diagnosed asthma (OR = 0.46,95%CI [0.27-0.79], p = 0.004) compared to those who had never smoked. In Malawi the prevalence of self-reported diagnosed asthma was greatest in females and urban dwellers. Notably, our findings indicate relationships between excess body weight as well as comorbidities and diagnosed asthma in females. Future investigations using longitudinally collected data and clinical measurements of asthma are needed to better understand these associations.

A practical guide to cross-cultural and multi-sited data collection in the biological and behavioural sciences.

Researchers in the biological and behavioural sciences are increasingly conducting collaborative, multi-sited projects to address how phenomena vary across ecologies. These types of projects, however, pose additional workflow challenges beyond those typically encountered in single-sited projects. Through specific attention to cross-cultural research projects, we highlight four key aspects of multi-sited projects that must be considered during the design phase to ensure success: (1) project and team management; (2) protocol and instrument development; (3) data management and documentation; and (4) equitable and collaborative practices. Our recommendations are supported by examples from our experiences collaborating on the Evolutionary Demography of Religion project, a mixed-methods project collecting data across five countries in collaboration with research partners in each host country. To existing discourse, we contribute new recommendations around team and project management, introduce practical recommendations for exploring the validity of instruments through qualitative techniques during piloting, highlight the importance of good documentation at all steps of the project, and demonstrate how data management workflows can be strengthened through open science practices. While this project was rooted in cross-cultural human behavioural ecology and evolutionary anthropology, lessons learned from this project are applicable to multi-sited research across the biological and behavioural sciences.

Association between physical multimorbidity and common mental health disorders in rural and urban Malawian settings: Preliminary findings from Healthy Lives Malawi long-term conditions survey.

In low-income Africa, the epidemiology of physical multimorbidity and associated mental health conditions is not well described. We investigated the multimorbidity burden, disease combinations, and relationship between physical multimorbidity and common mental health disorders in rural and urban Malawi using early data from 9,849 adults recruited to an on-going large cross-sectional study on long-term conditions, initiated in 2021. Multimorbidity was defined as having two or more measured (diabetes, hypertension) or self-reported (diabetes, hypertension, disability, chronic pain, HIV, asthma, stroke, heart disease, and epilepsy) conditions. Depression and anxiety symptoms were measured using the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and the 7-item General Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) and defined by the total score (range 0-27 and 0-21, respectively). We determined age-standardized multimorbidity prevalence and condition combinations. Additionally, we used multiple linear regression models to examine the association between physical multimorbidity and depression and anxiety symptom scores. Of participants, 81% were rural dwelling, 56% were female, and the median age was 30 years (Inter Quartile Range 21-43). The age-standardized urban and rural prevalence of multimorbidity was 14.1% (95% CI, 12.5-15.8%) and 12.2% (95% CI, 11.6-12.9%), respectively. In adults with two conditions, hypertension, and disability co-occurred most frequently (18%), and in those with three conditions, hypertension, disability, and chronic pain were the most common combination (23%). Compared to adults without physical conditions, having one (B-Coefficient (B) 0.79; 95% C1 0.63-0.94%), two- (B 1.36; 95% CI 1.14-1.58%), and three- or more- physical conditions (B 2.23; 95% CI 1.86-2.59%) were associated with increasing depression score, p-trend <0.001. A comparable 'dose-response' relationship was observed between physical multimorbidity and anxiety symptom scores. While the direction of observed associations cannot be determined with these cross-sectional data, our findings highlight the burden of multimorbidity and the need to integrate mental and physical health service delivery in Malawi.

Effects of exclusive breastfeeding on educational attainment and longitudinal trajectories of grade progression among children in a 13-year follow-up study in Malawi.

The benefits of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) for infant health and survival are well documented. However, its impact on educational outcomes has been contested and poorly researched in Africa. It has been hypothesised that positive associations reported in high-income countries can be attributed to residual confounding by socioeconomic status (SES). Our study investigated whether EBF duration in infancy is associated with educational attainment and age-for-grade attainment trajectories at school-age in rural Malawi. Longitudinal data on 1021 children at the Karonga demographic surveillance site in Malawi were analysed. Breastfeeding data were collected 3 months after birth and again at age one. The school grade of each child was recorded each year from age 6 until age 13. We calculated age-for-grade based on whether a child was at, over, or under the official expected age for a grade. Generalised estimating equations estimated the average effect of breastfeeding on age-for-grade. Latent class growth analysis identified age-for-grade trajectories, and multinomial logistic regression examined their associations with EBF. Maternal-child characteristics, SES, and HIV status were controlled. Overall, 35.9% of the children were exclusively breastfed for 6 months. Over-age for grade steadily increased from 9.6% at age 8 to 41.9% at age 13. There was some evidence that EBF for 6 months was associated with lower odds of being over-age for grade than EBF for less than 3 months (aOR = 0.82, 95%CI = 0.64-1.06). In subgroup analyses, children exclusively breastfed for 6 months in infancy were less likely to be over-age for grades between ages 6-9 (aOR = 0.64, 95%CI = 0.43-0.94). Latent class growth analysis also provided some evidence that EBF reduced the odds of falling behind in the early school grades (aOR = 0.66, 95%CI = 0.41-1.08) but not later. Our study adds to the growing evidence that EBF for 6 months has benefits beyond infant health and survival, supporting the WHO's recommendation on EBF.

Family network and household composition: a longitudinal dataset derived from the Karonga Health and Demographic Surveillance System, in rural Malawi.

Proximity to family, household composition, and structure are often studied as outcomes and as explanatory factors in a wide range of scientific disciplines. Here, we describe a large longitudinal dataset (currently including data from over 70,000 individuals from 2004 to 2017), including data on household structure, proximity to kin, population density, and other socio-demographic factors derived from data from the Karonga Health and Demographic Surveillance Site (HDSS) in Northern Malawi. We present how the dataset is generated, list some examples of how it can be used, and provide information on the limitations that affect the types of analyses that can be carried out.

Local and long-distance migration among young people in rural Malawi: importance of age, sex and family.

Background: In sub-Saharan Africa, migration of young people is common and occurs for a variety of reasons. Research focus is often on international or long-distance internal migration; however, shorter moves also affect people's lives and can reveal important information about cultures and societies. In rural sub-Saharan Africa, migration may be influenced by cultural norms and family considerations: these may be changing due to demographic shifts, urbanisation, and increased media access. Methods: We used longitudinal data from a Health and Demographic Surveillance Site in rural northern Malawi to present a detailed investigation of migration in young people between 2004-2017. Our focus is on the cultural effects of gender and family, and separate migrations into short and long distance, and independent and accompanied, as these different move types are likely to represent very different events in a young person's life. We use descriptive analyses multi-level multinomial logistic regression modelling. Results & conclusions: We found two key periods of mobility 1) in very young childhood and 2) in adolescence/young adulthood. In this traditionally patrilocal area, we found that young women move longer distances to live with their spouse, and also were more likely to return home after a marriage ends, rather than remain living independently. Young people living close to relatives tend to have lower chances of moving, and despite the local patrilineal customs, we found evidence of the importance of the maternal family. Female and male children may be treated differently from as young as age 4, with girls more likely to migrate long distances independently, and more likely to accompany their mothers in other moves.

Characterizing the evolving SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in urban and rural Malawi between February 2021 and April 2022: A population-based cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the changing SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and associated health and sociodemographic factors in Malawi between February 2021 and April 2022. METHODS: In total, four 3-monthly serosurveys were conducted within a longitudinal population-based cohort in rural Karonga District and urban Lilongwe, testing for SARS-CoV-2 S1 immunoglobulin (Ig)G antibodies using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Population seroprevalence was estimated in all and unvaccinated participants. Bayesian mixed-effects logistic models estimated the odds of seropositivity in the first survey, and of seroconversion between surveys, adjusting for age, sex, occupation, location, and assay sensitivity/specificity. RESULTS: Of the 2005 participants (Karonga, n = 1005; Lilongwe, n = 1000), 55.8% were female and median age was 22.7 years. Between Surveys (SVY) 1 and 4, population-weighted SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence increased from 26.3% to 89.2% and 46.4% to 93.9% in Karonga and Lilongwe, respectively. At SVY4, seroprevalence did not differ by COVID-19 vaccination status in adults, except for those aged 30+ years in Karonga (unvaccinated: 87.4%, 95% credible interval 79.3-93.0%; two doses: 98.1%, 94.8-99.5%). Location and age were associated with seroconversion risk. Individuals with hybrid immunity had higher SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity and antibody titers, than those infected. CONCLUSION: High SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence combined with low morbidity and mortality indicate that universal vaccination is unnecessary at this stage of the pandemic, supporting change in national policy to target at-risk groups.

Identification and development of a subtype-selective allosteric AKT inhibitor suitable for clinical development.

The serine/threonine protein kinase AKT plays a pivotal role within the PI3K pathway in regulating cellular proliferation and apoptotic cellular functions, and AKT hyper-activation via gene amplification and/or mutation has been implicated in multiple human malignancies. There are 3 AKT isoenzymes (AKT1-3) which mediate critical, non-redundant functions. We present the discovery and development of ALM301, a novel, allosteric, sub-type selective inhibitor of AKT1/2. ALM301 binds in an allosteric pocket created by the combined movement of the PH domain and the catalytic domain, resulting in a DFG out conformation. ALM301 was shown to be highly selective against a panel of over 450 kinases and potently inhibited cellular proliferation. These effects were particularly pronounced in MCF-7 cells containing a PI3KCA mutation. Subsequent cellular downstream pathway analysis in this sensitive cell line revealed potent inhibition of pAKT signalling up to 48 h post dosing. ALM301 treatment was well tolerated in an MCF-7 xenograft model and led to a dose-dependent reduction in tumour growth. Enhanced efficacy was observed in combination with tamoxifen. In summary, ALM301 is a highly specific AKT 1/2 inhibitor with an excellent pharmacological profile suitable for further clinical development.

A secondary data analysis of a cluster randomized controlled trial: improved cookstoves associated with reduction in incidence of low birthweight in rural Malawi.

BACKGROUND: In northern rural Malawi, the majority of households cook using open fires and there is also a high burden of adverse birth outcomes. The use of open fires or highly polluting cookstoves is associated with low birthweight in babies. There is mixed evidence on whether implementation of cleaner burning cookstoves reduces the number of babies born with low birthweight. METHODS: This is a secondary analysis of a cluster randomized control trial in Malawi, conducted over 2014-17. Households were randomized to receive improved cookstoves or to continue current practices. For this analysis, the primary outcome was low birthweight in households under routine demographic surveillance, among births occurring within the trial time frame (N = 4010). A subset of data with stricter exposure definitions respecting the original randomized allocation was also analysed (N = 1050). A causal, forwards modelling approach was used. RESULTS: The main dataset showed evidence of effect of the intervention on low birthweight [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.69; 95% CI 0.48-0.99, n = 2788). The subset analysis lacked power to provide evidence of association between improved cookstoves and low birthweight in the stricter exposure definition (aOR 0.62; 95% CI 0.35-1.09, n = 932). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides some evidence that an improved cookstove intervention in rural Malawi reduced the number of babies born with low birthweight by 30%. This direction of the effect was also seen in the subset analysis. The analysis suggests that the intervention reduced the number of infants born prematurely or with intra-uterine growth restriction, indicating that improved cookstoves could be a useful maternal health intervention.

BCG re-vaccination in Malawi: 30-year follow-up of a large, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: A large, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial of repeat BCG found 49% efficacy against leprosy but no protection against tuberculosis after 6-9 years' follow-up in 1995. We report here additional follow-up, which resulted in greatly increased tuberculosis case numbers, and allowed subgroup analysis. METHODS: Nearly 47 000 individuals of all ages living in northern Malawi with a BCG vaccine scar were randomly assigned (1:1) between 1986 and 1989 to receive a second BCG or placebo. The investigators and project staff remained masked to all interventions. Enhanced passive surveillance ensured ascertainment of tuberculosis and leprosy to the end of 2018. Tuberculosis case definitions included rigorous microbiological or histological confirmation. Prespecified subgroup analyses were by tuberculosis type, age at vaccination, time since vaccination, previous tuberculin reactivity, HIV status and Mycobacterium tuberculosis lineage. The original trial is registered with ISRCTN registry, ISRCTN11311670. FINDINGS: In follow-up until Dec 31, 2018, 824 participants had developed tuberculosis, including 786 with pulmonary disease, of whom 383 (63%) of 607 with known HIV status were HIV positive. There was no effect of a second BCG overall (odds ratio [OR] 0·92; 95% CI 0·80-1·05), or for pulmonary (0·93; 0·81-1·07), or lymph node tuberculosis (0·60; 0·31-1·17). The OR was lower for those with known HIV-negative tuberculosis (0·77; 0·59-1·00), for those vaccinated as children (aged <5 years, 0·74; 0·41-1·35; aged 5-14 years, 0·77; 0·60-0·99), and for cases arising at least 20 years after vaccination (0·79; 0·63-1·01). There were no differences by tuberculin status at vaccination, or lineage. There was no evidence of protection against leprosy beyond 10 years after vaccination (although there have been only nine diagnostically certain cases since 1995). INTERPRETATION: There was no evidence that repeat BCG vaccination provides appreciable protection against overall tuberculosis in this rural African population with a high prevalence of HIV. Subgroup effects should not be overinterpreted given the multiple analyses done. However, the evidence for modest protection against HIV-negative tuberculosis, and for a delayed benefit in those vaccinated as children, is consistent with other observations in the literature. FUNDING: LEPRA, Wellcome Trust, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Implications of HIV treatment policies on the health workforce in rural Malawi and Tanzania between 2013 and 2017: Evidence from the SHAPE-UTT study.

Effective implementation of policies for expanding antiretroviral therapy (ART) requires a well-trained and adequately staffed workforce. Changes in national HIV workforce policies, health facility practices, and provider experiences were examined in rural Malawi and Tanzania between 2013 and 2017. In both countries, task-shifting and task-sharing policies were explicit by 2013. In facilities, the cadre mix of providers varied by site and changed over time, with a higher and growing proportion of lower cadre staff in the Malawi site. In Malawi, the introduction of lay counsellors was perceived to have eased the workload of other providers, but lay counsellors reported inadequate support. Both countries had guidance on the minimum numbers of personnel required to deliver HIV services. However, patient loads per provider increased in both settings for HIV tests and visits by ART patients and were not met with corresponding increases in provider capacity in either setting. Providers reported this as a challenge. Although increasing patient numbers bodes well for achieving universal antiretroviral therapy coverage, the quality of care may be undermined by increased workloads and insufficient provider training. Task-shifting strategies may help address workload concerns, but require careful monitoring, supervision and mentoring to ensure effective implementation.

Assessing the implementation of facility-based HIV testing policies in Malawi, South Africa and Tanzania from 2013-2018: Findings from SHAPE-UTT study.

National HIV testing policies aim to increase the proportion of people living with HIV who know their status. National HIV testing policies were reviewed for each country from 2013 to 2018, and compared with WHO guidance. Three rounds of health facility surveys were conducted to assess facility level policy implementation in Karonga (Malawi), uMkhanyakude (South Africa), and Ifakara (Tanzania). A policy 'implementation' score was developed and applied to each facility by site for each round. Most HIV testing policies were explicit and aligned with WHO recommendations. Policies about service coverage, access, and quality of care were implemented in >80% of facilities per site and per round. However, linkage to care and the provision of outreach HIV testing for key populations were poorly implemented. The proportion of facilities reporting HIV test kit stock-outs in the past year reduced over the study period in all sites, but still occurred in ≥17% of facilities per site by 2017. The implementation score improved over time in Karonga and Ifakara and declined slightly in uMkhanyakude. Efforts are needed to address HIV test kit stock-outs and to improve linkage to care among people testing positive in order to reach the 90-90-90 targets.

Influence of evolving HIV treatment guidance on CD4 counts and viral load monitoring: A mixed-methods study in three African countries.

Little is known about how CD4 and viral load testing have evolved following implementation of universal test and treat (UTT) in African settings. We reviewed World Health Organization (WHO) guidance from 2013 to 2018, and compared it against national HIV policies in Malawi, Tanzania and South Africa. Three surveys rounds were conducted in 2013, 2016 and 2017-2018 in 33 health facilities across the three settings to assess implementation of national policies on the use of biological markers. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 26 HIV policymakers or programme managers, 21 providers and 66 people living with HIV to explore understandings and experiences of these tests. Various factors influenced adoption and implementation of WHO guidance, including historical policies on CD4 counts, governance issues, supply chain challenges and funding mechanisms. Facility-level practices relating to the use of these tests often diverged from national policies. Patients and providers valued both tests, but did not always understand their roles. In addition to continued support for scaling-up viral load testing, renewed focus should be placed on the ongoing value of point-of-care CD4 tests in the UTT era, including its role in assessing disease progression and informing clinical management of cases to reduce HIV-related mortality.

Implementation and experiences of integrated prevention of mother-to-child transmission services in Tanzania, Malawi and South Africa: A mixed methods study.

Although integration of HIV and maternal health services is recommended by the World Health Organization, evidence to guide implementation is limited. We describe facility-level implementation of policies for integrating HIV care within maternal health services and explore experiences of service users and providers in rural Tanzania (Ifakara), South Africa (uMkhanyakude) and Malawi (Karonga). Policy in all countries included HIV testing during antenatal care (ANC), same-day antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation for HIV-positive pregnant women, and postpartum referral to ART clinics, between six weeks (Malawi, South Africa) and two years after delivery (Tanzania). All facilities offered HIV testing within ANC, most commonly during the first visit. Although most women were comfortable with HIV testing, some felt that opting out would lead to sub-standard services. Some facilities conducted group post-test counselling for HIV-negative women, raising concerns of unintended HIV status disclosure. ART initiation was offered on the same day, the same room as an HIV diagnosis in >90% of facilities. Women's worries around postpartum referral included having unknown providers, insufficient privacy and queues. Adoption and implementation of policies on integrated HIV and maternal health services varied across settings. Patients' experiences of these policies may influence uptake and retention in care.

Assessing the validity of and factors that influence accurate self-reporting of HIV status after testing: a population-based study.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the validity of self-reported HIV status, and investigate factors that influence accurate reporting of HIV-positive status, in a population tested and informed of their HIV test result. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: We compared self-reported HIV status with biomarker-confirmed HIV test status among participants of Karonga Health and Demographic Surveillance Site in rural northern Malawi. We linked information on HIV test results to subsequent self-reported HIV status, and calculated sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value for self-reported HIV status (considered as a diagnostic test). We used Poisson regression with robust variance estimators to examine predictors of accurate self-reporting of HIV-positive status. RESULTS: Among 17 445 adults who tested for HIV, were recorded as having received their HIV test results, and had a subsequent self-reported HIV status between 2007 and 2018: positive predictive value of self-reported HIV status was 98.0% (95% confidence interval: 97.3-98.7); negative predictive value was 98.3 (98.1-98.5); sensitivity was 86.1% (84.5-87.7); and specificity was 99.8% (99.7-99.9). Among true HIV-positive people, those who were younger, interviewed in community settings, and had tested for HIV longer ago were more likely to misreport their HIV-positive status. CONCLUSION: In this setting, self-report provides good estimates of test-detected HIV prevalence, suggesting that it can be used when HIV test results are not available. Despite frequent HIV testing, younger people and those interviewed in community settings were less likely to accurately report their HIV-positive status. More research on barriers to self-reporting of HIV status is needed in these subgroups.

Effect of Acute Illness on Contact Patterns, Malawi, 2017.

The way persons interact when ill could profoundly affect transmission of infectious agents. To obtain data on these patterns in Africa, we recorded self-reported named contacts and opportunities for casual contact in rural northern Malawi. We interviewed 384 patients and 257 caregivers about contacts over three 24-hour periods: day of the clinic visit for acute illness, the next day, and 2 weeks later when well. For participants of all ages, the number of adult contacts and the proportion using public transportation was higher on the day of the clinic visit than later when well. Compared with the day after the clinic visit, well participants (2 weeks later) named a mean of 0.4 extra contacts; the increase was larger for indoor or prolonged contacts. When well, participants were more likely to visit other houses and congregate settings. When ill, they had more visitors at home. These findings could help refine models of infection spread.

"He was no longer listening to me": A qualitative study in six Sub-Saharan African countries exploring next-of-kin perspectives on caring following the death of a relative from AIDS.

In the era of widespread antiretroviral therapy, few studies have explored the perspectives of the relatives involved in caring for people living with HIV (PLHIV) during periods of ill-health leading up to their demise. In this analysis, we explore the process of care for PLHIV as their death approached, from their relatives' perspective. We apply Tronto's care ethics framework that distinguishes between care-receiving among PLHIV on the one hand, and caring about, caring for and care-giving by their relatives on the other. We draw on 44 in-depth interviews conducted with caregivers following the death of their relatives, in seven rural settings in Eastern and Southern Africa. Relatives suggested that prior to the onset of poor health, few of the deceased had disclosed their HIV status and fewer still were relying on anyone for help. This lack of disclosure meant that some caregivers spoke of enduring a long period of worry, and feelings of helplessness as they were unable to translate their concern and "caring about" into "caring for". This transition often occurred when the deceased became in need of physical, emotional or financial care. The responsibility was often culturally prescribed, rarely questioned and usually fell to women. The move to "care-giving" was characterised by physical acts of providing care for their relative, which lasted until death. Tronto's conceptualisation of caring relationships highlights how the burden of caring often intensifies as family members' caring evolves from "caring about", to "caring for", and eventually to "giving care" to their relatives. This progression can lead to caregivers experiencing frustration, provoking tensions with their relatives and highlighting the need for interventions to support family members caring for PLHIV. Interventions should also encourage PLHIV to disclose their HIV status and seek early access to HIV care and treatment services.

Risk of Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission in an antiretroviral therapy clinic.

OBJECTIVE: The risk of transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in antiretroviral therapy (ART) clinics is recognized, particularly, when HIV and tuberculosis services are unified, but the degree of potential exposure to patients with infectious tuberculosis has not been measured. We aimed to quantify this clinic exposure. METHODS: Over 1 year, we recorded all visits to a clinic in northern Malawi that offers HIV testing and counselling, HIV care, ART, and TB diagnostic and treatment services. We included patients and guardians, noting timing and reason for the visit, using a palm vein reader to assist recognition of individuals and record times automatically. Screening for tuberculosis was enhanced, including induced sputum if necessary. RESULTS: Information was collected on 5011 individuals and 19 426 visits. During the period, 90 individuals with bacteriologically confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis attended the clinic when they were likely to have been infectious (taken as 6 weeks before diagnosis to 2 weeks after the start of treatment), including 76 who attended before tuberculosis was diagnosed or suspected. We estimated that 19% of visits had at least 1 h of potential exposure to patients with infectious tuberculosis, half to patients attending prediagnosis. CONCLUSION: There was considerable risk of exposure, including of immunosuppressed patients, to patients with infectious tuberculosis, especially as repeated visits are made. Much of this exposure could not be avoided by separation of patients with known tuberculosis. Good ventilation and avoidance of crowding is essential to minimize transmission of M. tuberculosis in this type of setting.

Glycated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) for detection of diabetes mellitus and impaired fasting glucose in Malawi: a diagnostic accuracy study.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the accuracy of glycated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) in detecting type 2 diabetes and impaired fasting glucose among adults living in Malawi. DESIGN: A diagnostic validation study of HbA1c. Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) ≥7.0 mmol/L was the reference standard for type 2 diabetes, and FPG between 6.1 and 6.9 mmol/L as impaired fasting glucose. PARTICIPANTS: 3645 adults (of whom 63% were women) recruited from two demographic surveillance study sites in urban and rural Malawi. This analysis excluded those who had a previous diagnosis of diabetes or had history of taking diabetes medication. RESULTS: HbA1c demonstrated excellent validity to detect FPG-defined diabetes, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curve of 0.92 (95% CI 0.90 to 0.94). At HbA1c ≥6.5% (140 mg/dL), sensitivity was 78.7% and specificity was 94.0%. Subgroup AUROCs ranged from 0.86 for participants with anaemia to 0.94 for participants in urban Malawi. There were clinical and metabolic differences between participants with true diabetes versus false positives when HbA1c was ≥6.5% (140 mg/dL). CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study provide justification to use HbA1c to detect type 2 diabetes. As HbA1c testing is substantially less burdensome to patients than either FPG testing or oral glucose tolerance testing, it represents a useful option for expanding access to diabetes care in sub-Saharan Africa.

Implementing electronic data capture at a well-established health and demographic surveillance site in rural northern Malawi.

This article aims to assess multiple issues of resources, staffing, local opinion, data quality, cost, and security while transitioning to electronic data collection (EDC) at a long-running community research site in northern Malawi. Levels of missing and error fields, delay from data collection to availability, and average number of interviews per day were compared between EDC and paper in a complex, repeated annual household survey. Three focus groups with field and data staff with experience using both methods, and in-depth interviews with participants were carried out. Cost for each method were estimated and compared. Missing data was more common on paper questionnaires than on EDC, and a similar number were carried out per day. Fieldworkers generally preferred EDC, but data staff feared for their employment. Most respondents had no strong preference for a method. The cost of the paper system was estimated to be higher than using EDC. The existing infrastructure and technical expertise could be adapted to using EDC, but changes have an impact on data processing jobs as fewer, and better qualified staff are required. EDC is cost-effective, and, for a long-running site, may offer further savings, as devices can be used in multiple studies and perform several other functions. EDC is accepted by fieldworkers and respondents, has good levels of quality and timeliness, and security can be maintained. EDC is well-suited for use in a well-established research site using and developing existing infrastructure and expertise.